Advocacy and Argument Week 3

Summary: Argumentation & Reasoning (based on Toulmin’s Model)

1. What makes an argument “good”?

Phrases like “good point” or “that’s logical” mean a claim connects with knowledge the audience already accepts.

Not all arguments are equally strong; quality depends on evidence and reasoning.

2. Toulmin’s Model of Argument

Claim: The main point (e.g., students should major in petroleum engineering).

Grounds: Evidence or reasons supporting the claim.

Warrant: The general principle connecting grounds to claim.

Backing: Additional support for the grounds or warrant.

Qualifier: Indicates strength of claim (e.g., “probably,” “seriously consider”).

Rebuttal/Reservation: Counterarguments or conditions that limit the claim.

3. Reasoning Processes in Arguments

Logic/Deduction: Formal reasoning (syllogisms, enthymemes). Valid but limited in everyday contexts.

Generalization: Using samples/examples to make broader claims. Relies on fair representation.

Cause & Effect: Explains how one event leads to another (e.g., E. coli outbreak traced to sprouts).

Sign: Using indicators correlated with outcomes (e.g., good grades as a sign of safe driving).

Analogy: Comparing similar cases to transfer reasoning (used in law, politics, persuasion).

Authority: Relying on credible experts or institutions. Includes both expert authority and bandwagon appeals.

4. Key Insights

No single reasoning method is superior; effectiveness depends on the sphere (law, science, politics, personal life).

Arguments often blend multiple reasoning types.

Good argumentation also requires clarity, fairness, and acknowledgment of rebuttals.

Informal and practical logic focus less on absolute certainty, more on persuasion and problem-solving.

Types Of Arguments

  1. Argument from Authority

    •  A claim made by someone of authority

    • Example: A Dentist says you should brush your teeth twice a day

  2. Arguments by Generalization

    • Making an argument based on statistics

    • Example: 92% of UIOWA students believe they has the best sports in Iowa

  3. Arguments by Analogy or Parallel Case

    • If Case A and Case B are similar in certain respects, then what is true for A is likely true for B. (Stretching an analogy)

  4. Arguments by Signs

    • When there’s smoke there’s fire (infer)

    • Example: Dark clouds are a sign that it’s going to rain

  5. Arguments by Cause

    • One event or condition brings about another

    • Example: Changing laws will result in diminished trust in democracy

  6. Motivational Arguments

    • Making an argument because there’s a benefit listed

    • Example: You should work out because it is good for your health

Propositions

Proposition analysis: The examination of an argumentized situation for its claim

  1. Determine the issues: Make a list of factors, questions, problems, areas, and so on

  2. Rank-order the issues: Are some more important? Are some to be set aside?

  3. What critical values to apply: Clarity, Significance, Relevance, Consistency