Eisenhower’s Warning on the Military-Industrial Complex
The Scope of US Defense: President Eisenhower noted that the US was compelled to create a permanent armaments industry of vast proportions.
Human Resources: Currently, 3.5 million men and women are directly engaged in the defense establishment.
Financial Investment: The annual expenditure on military security exceeds the combined net income of all United States corporations.
The Military-Industrial Complex: Eisenhower defined this as the conjunction of an immense military establishment and a large arms industry, a development he identified as new in the American experience.
Societal Influence: The influence of this complex is felt in every city, every State house, and every office of the Federal government, affecting the economic, political, and even spiritual structure of society.
Potential for Danger: Eisenhower warned that in the councils of government, the nation must guard against the acquisition of "unwarranted influence" by the military-industrial complex. He stated that the potential for the "disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and will persist."
The Polish Leadership Crisis (1956)
Pre-Crisis Context:
* Following the breach between Stalin and Tito, a purge of communists with nationalist tendencies occurred.
* Wladislaw Gomulka lost power and was imprisoned.
* Approximately 300,000 members were expelled from the Party.
* In 1949, Polish cultural life was reorganized on the Soviet model: all writers' and artists' unions were controlled by the Party, and history was rewritten to favor Soviet Russia.
Dissident Activity Post-Stalin:
* Adam Wajyk published a poem on life in the "socialist paradise" of Nova Huta.
* Jan Kot attacked the style of socialist realism.
* Philosopher Leszek Kolakowski criticized Marxist-Leninism.
* Historians began acknowledging the "home army" that resisted Germans during the occupation.
The 1956 Crisis:
* First Secretary Boleslaw Bierut died in summer 1956, causing a succession crisis.
* Party Divisions:
* The Natolin Group (Diehards): Opposed to change and willing to use Soviet troops.
* The Liberals: Desired drastic reforms; supported by the rank and file.
* The Moderates: Willing to ally with liberals; Moscow favored Eduard Ochab, a moderate.
Public Unrest:
* June 1956: Strikes and riots in Poznan for higher wages and shorter hours.
* August 1956: Roman Catholic pilgrims demonstrated in Czestochowa.
Political Showdown:
* The Politburo refused to re-elect Marshall Rokossowski (a naturalized Soviet citizen) as Defense Minister.
* They turned to Wladislaw Gomulka, who had been released from prison in 1954. He refused minor posts, holding out for a major position with mass support.
* Soviet leaders arrived unexpectedly at a Central Committee meeting but were refused entry. They threatened invasion, but the Poles stood their ground with street support.
The Gomulka Resolution:
* Gomulka privately assured Soviets that Poland would remain in the Soviet bloc, preserve Party supremacy, and support Soviet policies.
* He was appointed First Secretary and subsequently persuaded the USSR to cancel Poland's debts.
* Internal Changes: He ended agricultural collectivization (80% of collective farms were split up) and sought a modus vivendi (compromise) with the Catholic Church.
* Backtrack: He later reimposed censorship and established a Commission for the supervision of Jews to propagate anti-Jewish propaganda, accusing them of wartime Nazi collaboration.
The Hungarian Uprising (1956)
The Rakosi Regime: First Secretary Rakosi ran a Stalinist regime. After the Stalin-Tito breach, he executed anti-Stalinist Laszlo Rajk and 2,000 others. 200,000 were imprisoned and another 200,000 expelled from the party.
Roots of Resentment: The regime was unpopular because it was seen as imposed by foreign conquerors, it was tyrannical, it enforced "sovietization" on a traditionally anti-Russian population, and living standards had dropped.
Shift in Power: Rakosi was ousted by the liberal Imre Nagy after Stalin's death, but Rakosi regained control in 1955 and ousted Nagy. This led to intellectuals in the Petofi Circle and the newspaper Szabad Nep expressing open resentment, fueled by Khrushchev's "Secret Speech."
The 1956 Outbreak:
* Oct 23rd: Over 50,000 students demonstrated at the Polish Embassy in Budapest.
* Ernö Gerö (Rakosi's liberal successor) gave a Stalinist speech instead of offering concessions.
* A massive statue of Stalin was demolished.
* When the AVO (Hungarian secret police) fired on students at the radio station, the riot became a revolution. Troops sent to disperse crowds joined them instead.
The Nagy Government: The Politburo appointed Imre Nagy as Prime Minister. Nagy formed a coalition with Smallholders Zoltan Tildy and Bella Kovaks.
The Soviet Response:
* Initially, Soviet forces began to withdraw on Oct 28th.
* On Oct 31st, Nagy announced Hungary would become a multi-party democracy, leave the Warsaw Pact, and become neutral.
* Other communist leaders in China, Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Bulgaria urged repression.
The Suppression:
* Nov 1st: János Kádár formed a pro-Soviet rival government.
* Nov 3rd: General Pal Maleter, Minister of Defence, was arrested by the Red Army while negotiating withdrawal.
* Nov 4th: Soviet forces advanced on Budapest. 20,000 people were killed; Nagy was executed; 180,000 fled to Austria.
Significance & Outcomes:
* The Suez Crisis diverted international attention.
* It led to "Polycentrism," a term coined by Italian Communist leader Palmiro Togliatti, arguing the Soviet pattern was no longer the sole model for communism.
* The US did not intervene to avoid violating the Percentages Agreement, despite encouraging the revolt via broadcasts.
The Suez Crisis
Background: In 1954, King Farouk was overthrown by a coup; Gamel Abdel Nasser emerged as leader. Nasser sought to end British influence, end the state of Israel, and create a just Egyptian society.
Escalation: Nasser blockaded the Gulf of Aquaba (Eilat port) and demanded British evacuation of the Canal. In 1955, he made an arms deal with Czechoslovakia.
The Dam Trigger: After Nasser recognized Communist China, the US cancelled a promised 56,000,000 grant for the Aswan High Dam. Nasser retaliated by nationalizing the Suez Canal to fund the dam.
The Conspiracy: British PM Sir Anthony Eden believed Nasser was building a communist-influenced Arab nation. Britain, France, and Israel secretly conspired to attack.
Conflict: Israel invaded Oct 29th, 1956, taking the Sinai Peninsula. UK and France bombed airfields and landed at Port Said.
Resolution: The US, fearing Arabs would turn to communism, refused to support the allies and forced a withdrawal by creating a run on the British and French currencies and joining the USSR in UN demands for withdrawal.
Impact:
* Nasser's prestige rose as a leader of Arab nationalism.
* The Eisenhower Doctrine (Jan 5, 1957) was announced to contain communism in the Middle East.
* The UK and France saw their influence in the region wain.
The Nuclear Arms Race (1956–1964)
U-2 Spy Planes: These planes flew at altitudes above 14 miles, beyond Soviet air defenses. They could read a newspaper headline from 12 miles high and photograph an area 125 miles wide by 3,000 miles long.
The Space Race:
* Oct 4th, 1957: USSR launched Sputnik 1, the first orbiting satellite.
* Feb 1958: US launched Explorer, its first satellite.
Missile Technology:
* The US Atlas missile had a range of 6,000 miles but took over an hour to launch.
* The Minuteman missile (late 1950s) used solid fuel, could fire within a minute, and was stored in protected underground silos.
* Polaris Submarines (July 1960): Fired from underwater/under the North Pole ice. One submarine held more destructive power than all WWII bombs combined.
Strategic Doctrines:
* SIOP (1960): The Single Integrated Operational Plan for a first strike against the Eastern bloc. It involved 3,200 nuclear weapons targeting 1,060 sites, including 130 cities. Casualties were estimated at 285 million dead and 40 million injured.
* Flexible Response (May 1962): A US policy where aggression would not necessarily trigger a massive nuclear attack, used because the previous "massive retaliation" lacked credibility.
International Nuclear Proliferation:
* UK: First H-bomb in 1957; the government maintained its own force to avoid being "wholly in [US] hands."
* France: Acquired nuclear weapons in 1963. The "Force de Frappe" included siloed missiles on the Plateau d'Albion, Mirage jets, and submarines. De Gaulle refused NATO control to avoid relying on an "unreliable protector."
* China: Exploded an atomic bomb in 1964.
US-Soviet Relations & The U-2 Incident
Diplomacy: Khrushchev and Bulganin visited the UK (1956); Khrushchev visited the US (1959).
The U-2 Incident (May 5, 1960):
* An American U-2 plane was shot down over the Ural Mountains.
* The US initially denied the flight, claiming it was a stray meteorological plane.
* The USSR produced pilot Gary Powers, who admitted to illegal espionage (he chose not to swallow his issued cyanide capsule).
* Consequences: The Paris peace summit broke up; Eisenhower's invitation to the USSR was cancelled; the Soviet delegate left the Disarmament Conference.
The Berlin Crises
The Brain Drain: East Germany (DDR) suffered economically as trained professionals (doctors/engineers) fled to the West for higher wage differentials. By 1952, emigration was restricted, yet 200,000 people a year still crossed from East to West Berlin.
The Berlin Wall: Built between August 13–19, 1961. It surrounded the 30 mile perimeter of the Western sectors and reduced crossing points to four. The wall effectively stopped the "hemorrhaging" of the DDR's educated population.