Christian Morality Final Study Guide
Key Terms and Concepts for Final Exam:
Unit 1: Foundations of Christian Morality
Social Location: The context of an individual's life, encompassing societal influences like culture, socio-economic status, historical period, and personal experiences, which profoundly shape their moral perspectives and decision-making.
Moral Agent: An individual who possesses the capacity for rational thought and free will, enabling them to make conscious moral decisions and bear responsibility for the ethical implications of those choices.
Moral Agency: The inherent capacity of a moral agent to consistently act in accordance with moral judgments and principles, demonstrating a stable disposition towards ethical behavior.
Morality: Refers to the set of principles or rules concerning the distinction between right and wrong, or good and bad behavior, often learned from society, culture, or religion.
Ethics: The systematic, philosophical study of what is right and wrong in human conduct, exploring the theoretical foundations and reasoning behind moral judgments. It's the intellectual discipline concerned with morality.
Moral Realism: The belief that objective moral facts exist independently of human opinion or sentiment, suggesting that moral statements can be universally true or false.
Values, Principles, Choices, Character: These are interconnected components that contribute to how individuals interpret and enact morality. Values are beliefs about what is important; principles are fundamental truths or propositions serving as the foundation for a belief system; choices are the decisions made based on values and principles; and character is the sum of one's moral qualities, shaped by consistent choices.
Moral Issue: A situation, problem, or dilemma that poses a clear question of right versus wrong, requiring an ethical judgment or decision.
Morally-Neutral Issue: An issue that does not inherently carry moral significance or direct implications for right or wrong behavior; its morality typically depends on context or associated actions.
Moral Relativism: The philosophical idea that moral principles and judgments are not universal but are relative to particular cultures, societies, historical periods, or individuals.
Moral Objectivism: The idea that some moral principles or truths are objectively valid and universal, applying to all people in all situations, regardless of cultural or individual preferences.
Object, Intention, Circumstances: These are the three essential aspects that determine the moral quality (goodness or evil) of a human action. The object is the specific action itself; the intention is the end or purpose the agent has in mind; and the circumstances are the conditions surrounding the act, which can increase or decrease its moral goodness or evil.
Good and Evil: Fundamental concepts of morality, used to assess actions, motives, and character. Good generally refers to that which is morally right, beneficial, or aligned with divine will, while evil denotes that which is morally wrong, harmful, or contrary to moral order.
Human Dignity: The inherent, inalienable worth and value of every human person, derived from the belief that humans are created in the image and likeness of God (). This dignity demands respect for all human life.
Soul, Intellect, Free Will: Essential elements comprising human nature and underpinning moral capability. The soul is the spiritual principle that animates the body; the intellect is the faculty of understanding and reasoning; and free will is the capacity to choose between different courses of action, unimpeded by deterministic forces, making moral responsibility possible.
Human Nature: The general characteristics, feelings, and behavioral traits that are shared by all humankind, often posited as an unchanging essence.
Human Condition: The various aspects and experiences that encompass human life, including birth, growth, emotion, aspiration, conflict, and death, often seen in light of finitude and fallenness.
Original Sin: The theological doctrine that denotes the fallen state of human nature, inherited from the first parents, Adam and Eve. It signifies a privation of original holiness and justice, leading to concupiscence (inclination to sin), a darkened intellect, and a weakened will.
Salvation History: The narrative of God's saving actions throughout human history, beginning with creation, moving through the Old Testament covenants, culminating in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ, and continuing through the Church, all leading to humanity's redemption and ultimate union with God.
Beatitude: The state of utmost joy, perfect happiness, and fulfillment found in ultimate union with God, as described in the Beatitudes of Jesus and as the ultimate end () of human life in Christian theology.
Unit 2: Conscience and Law
Conscience: An inner sense, rooted in intellect and reason, that guides a person to understand and discern right from wrong in concrete actions, impelling them to do good and avoid evil. In Catholic teaching, it is often described as a judgment of reason whereby the human person recognizes the moral quality of a concrete act that he is going to perform, is in the process of performing, or has already performed.
Conscience vs. Conscious: This distinction highlights two different aspects of human experience. Conscience refers specifically to moral discernment—the inner voice that guides ethical judgments. Conscious refers to basic awareness of one's environment, immediate sensations, thoughts, and feelings, without inherent moral implication.
Primacy of Conscience: The foundational importance and inviolability of following one’s well-formed conscience in moral decision-making. It underscores the individual's ultimate responsibility to act according to their sincere moral convictions, even when they diverge from external authority, provided the conscience is truly formed.
Twin Obligations of Conscience: The two inseparable duties associated with conscience: first, the grave obligation to form one's conscience diligently and continually through prayer, study, reflection, and seeking guidance; and second, the corresponding obligation to follow one's conscience once it is formed, as it represents the voice of God's law in the heart.
Conscience Formation: The ongoing, lifelong process of developing and refining one's moral awareness and capacity for sound moral judgment. This involves intellectual effort (learning moral principles), spiritual growth (prayer, scripture), and practical experience (testing judgments against reality and seeking counsel).
Interiority: Refers to the depth of one's inner thoughts, feelings, motivations, and spiritual life, which significantly influence the formation and operation of conscience. It emphasizes the subjective and personal dimension of moral experience that shapes how one perceives and responds to moral questions.
Objective Standard of Right and Wrong: Established truths, moral laws, or universal principles that exist independently of individual feelings or cultural norms, providing a stable basis for moral judgment. Examples include eternal law, natural law, and divinely revealed law.
Eternal Law: God’s divine and transcendent blueprint for the universe, the ultimate source and foundation of all law. It reflects God’s wisdom, order, and providence, guiding all creation towards its proper end and prescribing moral behavior for rational creatures.
Moral Law: Directives for human actions that are derived from the Eternal Law, guiding individuals and societies toward their true good. It encompasses various expressions, including natural law, divine law, and human law, all reflecting God's will for humanity.
Natural (Moral) Law: The moral law that is inscribed in human nature itself and knowable through human reason. It is universally accessible and instructs us in fundamental moral principles, such as preserving life, seeking truth, and living in society. It serves as a participation of rational creatures in God's eternal law.
Divine (Moral) Law / Revelation: Laws articulated specifically through sacred texts and divine inspiration, surpassing what can be known by human reason alone. This includes the Old Law (Law of Moses) and the New Law (Law of the Gospel), revealing God's will and guiding humanity towards salvation.
Natural Law Theory: A philosophical and theological framework positing that moral laws are not arbitrary human conventions but are inherently derived from the nature of humanity and the order of creation, knowable through reason. Actions are morally right if they align with human nature's teleological striving for its proper ends.
Law of Moses: The ethical and juridical commandments given to the Israelites through Moses, particularly those found in the Torah. This includes the Ten Commandments, which serve as a foundational moral framework for both Judaism and Christianity.
Ten Commandments / Decalogue: The core moral framework outlined in the Bible (Exodus 20, Deuteronomy 5), consisting of ten fundamental precepts regarding duties toward God and neighbor. They serve as a concise summary of God's Old Covenant law.
Law of the Gospel: Also known as the New Law, it represents the transformative commands and teachings of Jesus Christ, particularly in the Sermon on the Mount. It emphasizes interior conversion, perfect love, and imitation of Christ, moving beyond external observance to a law of grace and freedom.
Greatest Commandment: A summative ethical directive found in the Gospels (Matthew 22:37-40), emphasizing absolute love for God with all one's heart, soul, and mind, and love for neighbor as oneself. It encapsulates the essence of the entire moral law.
New Commandment: Jesus' specific directive given during the Last Supper (John 13:34-35): "Love one another as I have loved you." This commandment elevates Christian love to a sacrificial, Christ-like standard, making it a distinguishing mark of his disciples.
Shema: A central declaration of the oneness of God in Judaism, affirming devotion and allegiance to God. Its repeated recitation emphasizes monotheism and the primary call to love God thoroughly, influencing Jewish and Christian ethical thought.
Human Laws: Legislation created by human authorities to regulate societal behavior, reflecting moral considerations and aiming to promote the common good. For a human law to be just, it must be rooted in and congruent with natural and divine law.
Precepts of the Church: Specific minimum directives issued by the Catholic Church to guide the faithful in living a moral and sacramental life, serving as an obligation to participate in the Church's life (e.g., attending Mass on Sundays, confessing sins annually).
Canon Law: The comprehensive system of ecclesiastical laws and regulations governing the organization, liturgy, and discipline of the Catholic Church. It provides the legal framework for the Church's internal life and mission.
Just Law: A law that aligns with moral principles, respects human dignity, promotes the common good, is promulgated by legitimate authority, and is fairly applied. An unjust law, conversely, fails these criteria.
Unjust Law: A law that infringes upon natural rights, violates moral principles (e.g., natural law or divine law), undermines justice, or is applied discriminatorily. According to figures like Martin Luther King, Jr., such laws do not bind conscience and may necessitate civil disobedience.
Unit 3: Virtue and Freedom
Telos: The ultimate aim, end, or purpose of human life within moral and philosophical frameworks. In Christian morality, the of human life is beatitude, or union with God and eternal happiness.
Beatitude, Salvation, Theosis: Spiritual aims leading to ultimate fulfillment and union with God. Beatitude (perfect happiness), Salvation (deliverance from sin and its consequences, leading to eternal life), and Theosis (divinization or becoming like God through grace, primarily in Eastern Orthodox traditions) all describe aspects of the human journey toward God.
Grace: The unmerited divine assistance given to humans by God for their regeneration, sanctification, and salvation. It is God's free favor, which helps us to respond to his call, to become his children, and to live according to his will.
Virtue(s): Habits or stable dispositions of intellect and will that contribute to moral excellence, disposing a person to do good. Virtues make possible ease, self-mastery, and joy in leading a morally good life. They are acquired through human effort and perfected by God's grace.
Cardinal Virtues: The four primary moral virtues foundational to ethical living, from which all other moral virtues flow: prudence (right reason in action), temperance (moderation of desires), fortitude (courage and perseverance in difficulty), and justice (giving God and neighbor what is due).
Aristotelian Virtue Ethics: An ethical theory, primarily developed by Aristotle, that focuses on achieving eudaimonia (human flourishing) through the cultivation of virtuous character. It emphasizes living well and acting right by developing excellent character traits rather than strictly adhering to rules or focusing on consequences.
Eudaimonia: A Greek term often translated as "flourishing," "well-being," or "living well." In Aristotelian ethics, eudaimonia is the ultimate goal of human life, achieved through a life of virtue and rational activity.
Golden Mean: In Aristotelian virtue ethics, the desirable middle course between two extremes, one of excess and the other of deficiency. For example, courage is the mean between recklessness (excess) and cowardice (deficiency).
Theological Virtues: The three virtues that specifically direct believers to God and are infused by God into the souls of the faithful: faith (belief in God and all that he has revealed), hope (trusting in God’s promises for eternal life and the means to attain it), and love/charity (loving God above all things and our neighbor as ourselves for love of God).
Vice, Vices: Negatively charged habits or qualities that lead away from virtue and moral excellence. Vices are acquired by repeated bad actions and dispose a person to sin. They are the antithesis of virtues.
Capital Vices/Seven “Deadly” Sins: Major moral failures, considered fundamental or root vices in Christian teaching, from which many other sins arise: pride, greed, lust, envy, gluttony, wrath, and sloth.
Sin: An action, word, or desire against the eternal law of God. It is a deliberate transgression of God's law, an offense against God, and a failure to love God and neighbor authentically. Sin wounds human nature and solidarity.
Different Types of Sin: Varying moral infractions, typically categorized by gravity. The main distinction is between venial sins (less serious, do not lead to complete separation from God but wound charity) and mortal sins (grave sins that destroy charity in the heart of man by a grave violation of God’s law, turning man away from God).
Three Conditions of Mortal Sin: For a sin to be mortal, three conditions must be simultaneously met: it must involve a grave matter (serious violation of God's law), committed with full knowledge (awareness of the sinful character of the act), and with deliberate consent (sufficient freedom and will to commit the act).
Biblical Concepts of Sin: Diverse ways sin is portrayed in scriptures, often emphasizing different aspects: missing the mark, rebellion against God's will, disobedience to his commands, injustice, treachery, and alienation or separation from God.
Freedom: The power or right, rooted in reason and will, to act, speak, or think as one wants without hindrance. In Christian morality, true freedom is not merely doing what one wants, but doing what is good and right, which leads to fulfillment.
Free Will: The ability to choose between different courses of action unimpeded by deterministic forces. It is critical for moral responsibility, as actions must be voluntary to be morally imputable.
Libertas: The Latin term emphasizing true freedom as liberation from sin, from addiction to disordered passions, and from moral error, allowing one to freely choose the good and pursue virtue towards God. It is freedom for excellence.
Liberum Arbitrium: The Latin term referring to the capacity for self-determination or the freedom of choice between alternatives. It describes the power to choose
thisorthat, or to act or not act, representing a more basic understanding of freedom of indifference.Forgiveness: The intentional and voluntary process by which a victim undergoes a change in feelings and attitude regarding an offense, pardoning the wrongdoer without necessarily condoning the offense. It is crucial in Christian morality for reconciliation and spiritual healing.
Tolerance: The acceptance of differing views, beliefs, or practices, even if one disagrees with them, typically exercised for the sake of peaceful coexistence. In Christian morality, tolerance is limited by moral principles; one cannot tolerate what is gravely evil, but one can tolerate individuals or erroneous views with charity and respect.
Unit 4: Ethical Frameworks
Moral Agent: The individual who is responsible for their own moral decisions and actions, possessing the capacity for self-consciousness, reason, and free will.
Object, Intention, Circumstances: The three key elements used in classical Catholic moral theology to evaluate the moral quality (goodness or evil) of an action. All three must be good or at least not evil for the action to be morally good.
Virtue Ethics: An ethical theory that focuses on the moral character of the agent rather than on rules (deontology) or consequences (consequentialism). It asks "What kind of person should I be?" and emphasizes the development of virtues to achieve human flourishing (eudaimonia).
Deontology: The ethical theory centered around rules, obligations, and duties, asserting that the morality of an action should be based on whether that action itself is right or wrong under a series of rules, rather than based on the consequences of the action. Moral duties are often seen as universal and apply regardless of outcome.
Divine Command Theory: A form of deontology where moral standards and duties are based solely on the commands or will of God. An action is morally right because God commands it, and wrong because God forbids it.
Natural Law Theory: As a deontological framework, it posits that ethical principles and moral duties are derived from the inherent rational order of nature and human reason. It argues that certain actions are inherently right or wrong based on whether they fulfill or frustrate human nature's natural inclinations and purposes.
Kantian Ethics: Based on the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, this deontological theory asserts that moral actions must stem from duty alone and be guided by universalizable maxims (rules). The moral worth of an action is determined by the good will of the agent, acting purely out of respect for the moral law.
Categorical Imperative: A foundational concept in Kant's ethics, stating that one must act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law. It is a universal, unconditional moral law that applies to all rational beings and does not depend on any particular ends or desires.
Maxim: In Kantian ethics, the subjective principle or rule behind an action, which the agent wills to apply. It is a personal policy or rule of conduct that one adopts.
Consequentialism: An ethical theory where the outcomes, results, or consequences of an action are the sole or primary determinant of its moral rightness or wrongness. The best action is the one that produces the best results.
Hedonism: A form of consequentialism that identifies pleasure as the highest good and the proper aim of human life. Actions are morally right if they maximize pleasure and minimize pain.
Egoism: An ethical theory emphasizing self-interest as the primary motivator for moral action. Ethical egoism posits that one ought to act in one's own self-interest, while psychological egoism claims people do always act in their own self-interest.
Utilitarianism: A prominent form of consequentialism that holds that the best action is the one that maximizes utility, often defined as the greatest happiness or well-being for the greatest number of people. It focuses on the overall aggregate good.
Utility: In consequentialist ethics, especially utilitarianism, utility is the measure of the usefulness or benefit derived from an action. It often refers to happiness, pleasure, well-being, or the satisfaction of preferences.
Unit 5: Christian Love and Moral Imagination
Storge, Philia, Eros, Agape: Different forms of love as understood in ancient Greek philosophy and integrated into Christian ethics. Storge (familial affection), Philia (brotherly love, friendship), Eros (romantic, passionate desire), and Agape (unconditional, self-sacrificial, divine love, characteristic of Christian ethics and God's love for humanity).
The Rigor of Love: This concept underscores the discipline, commitment, and often demanding nature involved in genuine Christian love (agape). It implies that love is not merely a feeling but a demanding act of the will, requiring sacrifice, patience, and perseverance, especially when loving those who are difficult or unlovable.
New Commandment: Jesus’ teaching to love one another as He loves us (John 13:34-35). This commandment sets a new, higher standard for love among Christians, making Christ's self-giving love the model.
Greatest Commandment / Law of Love: The central tenet of Christian ethics, as articulated by Jesus: to love God with all one's heart, soul, and mind, and to love one's neighbor as oneself. It serves as the ultimate summary and foundation of all moral law.
1 Corinthians 13:4-8: Biblical verses that provide a profound definition of love's characteristics, often referred to as the "hymn to love." It describes love as patient, kind, not envious, boastful, proud, rude, self-seeking, easily angered, or resentful, and states that love never fails.
Saint Thomas Aquinas’ Definition of Love: Aquinas defines love as "to will the good of the other for the other's sake" (Velle bonum alicujus). This intellectual and volitional definition emphasizes selfless concern for the well-being of the beloved, not merely an emotional attachment.
God is Love, The Trinity: This explores the intrinsic nature of God as love itself (1 John 4:8) and the relational character of the Trinity (Father, Son, Holy Spirit). The Trinity is presented as a perfect communion of love, which serves as the ultimate model for human relationships and the ideal for which human love strives.
Imagination: The faculty of forming new ideas, images, or concepts not present to the senses or drawn from previous experience. It enables creative thought and the ability to envision possibilities.
Moral Imagination: The capability to conceive moral realities, empathize with others' perspectives, foresee the potential moral consequences of actions, and creatively envision ethical solutions to complex dilemmas. It is essential in ethical reasoning for moving beyond abstract principles to concrete applications.
Common Good: A social condition that enables individuals and groups within a community to reach their fulfillment more fully and easily. It encompasses the sum total of social conditions which allow people, either as groups or as individuals, to reach their fulfillment more fully and more easily, including peace, justice, and respect for rights.
Learning Objectives
Study: Specific examples and teachings discussed in class are necessary for exam preparation. Students should be able to not only define terms but also illustrate their application with concrete examples from readings, lectures, and discussions.
Examples of Learning Objectives:
Morality: Describe the components and implications of morality, including the interplay of values, principles, choices, and character, and differentiate between moral, immoral, and amoral acts.
Human Acts: Breakdown the six components contributing to the morality of a human act (namely, object, intention, and circumstances, along with the agent, knowledge, and voluntariness), and analyze their application through various case studies.
Good, Evil, and Freedom: Apply philosophical and theological perspectives to differentiate human nature (essential characteristics) from the human condition (experiential realities) and discuss their intersections with concepts of good, evil, and freedom.
Moral Agency: Detail reasons for moral agency (e.g., possession of intellect and free will) and identify the various sources of moral responsibility (e.g., conscience, law, community).
Original Sin: Explore the multifaceted relationships affected by original sin—with God, self, others, and creation—and illustrate these disruptions through a detailed exegesis of Genesis 3.
Christian Morality Narrative: Provide a comprehensive overview of the Christian moral plot, encompassing the entire sweep of salvation history from creation, through the covenant with Israel, to redemption in Christ, and culminating in the pursuit of beatitude.
Conscience Definition: Explain conscience in the context of moral decision-making, differentiating it from mere feelings or conventional wisdom, and provide Catholic perspectives on its nature and function.
Twin Obligations: Discuss the profound meaning of conscience's primacy according to Catholic tradition, alongside the inseparable twin obligations to actively form and faithfully follow one's conscience.
Conscience Formation: Identify and elaborate on the steps and stages involved in forming a conscience effectively, including the role of prayer, scripture, Church teaching, reason, and community.
Conscience and Moral Law: Analyze the dynamic interaction between an individual's conscience and the various expressions of moral law (eternal, natural, divine, human), discussing how conscience applies law to concrete situations.
Law Frameworks: Define the relationships among eternal law (God's plan), natural law (knowable by reason), divine law (revealed law), and human laws, explaining how each informs the others.
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.'s Teachings: Evaluate the application of Judeo-Christian morality in his justification for civil disobedience in "Letter from Birmingham Jail," explaining his criteria for distinguishing just from unjust laws.
Telos of Christian Morality: Describe the ultimate aims and purposes () expressed in various forms of Christian morality, such as beatitude, salvation, and theosis.
Grace and Virtue: Delineate the terms and functions of grace (divine assistance) and virtue (moral habits) within Catholic moral theology, explaining how grace perfects nature and supports virtue.
Cardinal and Theological Virtues: List, define, and explain the significance of the four Cardinal Virtues (prudence, justice, fortitude, temperance) and the three Theological Virtues (faith, hope, love) per Catholic tradition.
Concepts of Sin and Vice: Examine theological and biblical definitions surrounding sin (e.g., missing the mark, rebellion, alienation) and vice (e.g., capital sins), exploring their origins and effects.
Sin Categories: Differentiate venial and mortal sins, specifying their distinguishing conditions (grave matter, full knowledge, deliberate consent) and consequences.
Freedom Notions: Compare and contrast two Western perspectives of freedom—namely, liberum arbitrium (freedom of choice/indifference) and libertas (freedom for excellence/liberation from sin)—relating them to the human capacity for sin.
Freedom, Sin, and Forgiveness: Investigate their interconnectedness within Christian ethics, explaining how sin impedes true freedom, and how forgiveness, enabled by grace, restores freedom and reconciliation.
Ethical Theories: Characterize deontology (duty-based), virtue ethics (character-based), and consequentialism (outcome-based) as distinct ethical frameworks, including their key features, strengths, and weaknesses.
Philosophical Concepts of Love: Explore critical tenets of Christian love, distinguishing between storge, philia, eros, and agape, and explaining Aquinas' definition of love as willing the good of the other.
Examples of Moral Imagination: Develop definitions and provide practical examples of moral imagination within ethical contexts, showing how it enables empathetic and creative moral discernment.
Role of Stories: Assess how narratives, particularly biblical stories and parables, contribute to the development of moral imagination and inspire individuals to pursue the common good.
Essay Options for Final Exam
Essay Option 1: Discussing human dignity as the foundational principle of Christian morality and its biblical basis in the imago Dei. Further, explore how the concepts of the immortal soul, intellect, and free will intrinsically connect to and enable human moral agency, providing supportive examples.
Essay Option 2: Analyzing human freedom in the context of sin, critically distinguishing between libertas (freedom for excellence) and liberum arbitrium (freedom of choice). Elaborate on the indispensable relationship of grace and virtue to achieving true human freedom, supported by relevant examples.
Essay Option 3: Citing the philosophical insights of Simon Critchley and Søren Kierkegaard in examining the "rigor of Christian love." Interpret Jesus’ New Commandment ("Love one another as I have loved you") in alignment with Kierkegaard's profound philosophy regarding love's demanding and unconditional essence.