Research Instruments and Academic Writing

Research Instruments

  • A research instrument is a tool used to gather data on a specific topic of interest.
  • It must be both valid and reliable.
  • Reliability means it provides consistent and stable data over time.

Survey

  • A survey contains planned questions to measure attitudes, perceptions, and opinions.
  • Responses are directly related to specific research questions.
  • Types of questions:
    • RECALL: Asks for specific information (e.g., years of service, age, address).
    • RECOGNITION: Provides options for the response (e.g., multiple choice, dichotomous (yes/no), rating scale).
    • OPEN-ENDED: Elicits brief explanations or impressions.

Interview

  • An instrument that allows the researcher to qualitatively gather data.
  • Questions are usually open-ended.
  • Stages:
    1. Pre-interview stage: Prepare an interview guide, identify and contact respondents.
    2. Warm-up stage: Ask questions to make respondents comfortable.
    3. Main interview stage: Ask questions directly related to the research question.
    4. Closing stage: Wind down the interview, acknowledge and thank respondents.

Questionnaire

  • Compared with interviews, questionnaires are more quantifiable.
  • Questions are usually dichotomous and use identification type of test.
  • Sections:
    1. Personal Information Section: Includes name (optional), age, date of birth, address, educational background, etc.
    2. Basic Question Section: Establishes that the person is right for the study and establishes rapport (especially in interviews).
    3. Main Question Section: Contains questions directly related to the research.
    4. Open-Ended Questions Section: Asks for brief explanations or responses.

Observation

  • Allows the description of behavior in a naturalistic or laboratory setting.
  • Types:
    • Participant: The researcher interacts actively with the subjects.
    • Non-participant: The researcher observes without interacting.
    • Structured: The researcher has a list of behaviors to observe.
    • Unstructured: The researcher allows behaviors to emerge.
    • Covert: Subjects are unaware they are being observed.
    • Overt: Subjects are aware they are being observed.

Experiment

  • A procedure undertaken scientifically and systematically to make a discovery and test hypotheses.

Reaction Papers, Reviews, and Critiques

  • Specialized forms of writing where a reviewer evaluates:
    • Scholarly work (e.g., academic books)
    • Work of art (e.g., performance)
    • Designs (industrial, graphic)
  • Length: Usually 250 to 750 words.
  • Involves critical thinking.
  • Not simply summaries, but critical assessments.

Formalism

  • Key to understanding the text is the text itself.
  • External contexts (historical, author) are not necessary.
  • Focuses on style, structure, tone, imagery, etc., within the text.
  • Uses individual parts, characters, and elements to give meaning in a literal way.

Feminism

  • Focuses on how literature presents women as subjects of sociopolitical, psychological, and economic oppression.
  • Examines how culture is patriarchal (views men as superior).
  • Key aspects:
    1. How culture determines gender.
    2. How gender equality is presented.
    3. How gender issues are presented.
    4. How women are oppressed by patriarchy.

Reader Response

  • text + reader = MEANING.
  • Concerns the reviewer’s reaction as an audience.
  • Focuses on how readers interpret ideas in the text.

Marxist Criticism

  • Focuses on differences between economic classes.
  • Examines conflicts between working classes and the elite.
  • Source of people’s experience is the socioeconomic system.
  • Key aspects:
    1. Social class as represented in the work.
    2. Social class of the writer.
    3. Conflicts and interactions between economic classes.

Structure for Critiques

  1. Introduction (5%):
    • Title of the book/article/work.
    • Writer’s name.
    • Thesis statement.
  2. Summary (10%):
    • Objective.
    • Methods used.
    • Major findings.
  3. Review/Critique (75%):
    • Coherence of ideas.
    • Soundness of explanation.
  4. Conclusion (10%):
    • Overall impression of the work.
    • Suggestions for future research.
Introduction
  • Basic details about the material.
Plot Summary
  • Gist of the plot.
Analysis
  • Discussion and analysis of the work.
Conclusion evaluation
  • Reinforcement of the main assessment.

Definition

  • Clarifies and explains concepts, ideas, and things by answering:
    • What is it?
    • What does it mean?
    • What are its special features?
  • Clarifies meaning and limits scope to avoid misinterpretations.
Formal Definition
  • Explains a term by incorporating the term, class, and distinguishing features.
    • Term – the word to be defined (species).
    • Class – the general category (genus).
    • Distinguishing Features – qualities that make the term unique (differentia).
Informal Definition
  • Do not include the distinguishing features.
  • Done through parenthetical or brief explanation.
Extended Definition
  • Essay-length texts using different rhetorical patterns.
  • Detailed way of defining a term.
  • Incorporates various patterns of development.
  • Signal words: such as, for instance, to define, is defined as, to illustrate.
  • Example: Learning materials refer to both printed and non-printed objects or items that teachers use to facilitate language learning.

Explication

  • A method of explanation where sentences, verses, quotes, or passages are interpreted and explained in detail.

Clarification

  • A method of explanation organizing points from general abstract ideas to specific examples.
  • Signal Words: after all, for instance, namely, that is, as an example, in other words, to clarify, to illustrate, to be specific, put another way

Parts of a Concept Paper

  • Ranges from 500 to 2,000 words.
  • May vary depending on the nature of the project/activity.
Concept Paper for a Project
  1. Cover Page:
    • State the name of the proponents and their affiliations.
    • State the head of the agency.
  2. Introduction:
    • State the information about the funding agency.
    • State the mission of the agency that the proponents represent.
  3. Rationale or Background:
    • State the gap in knowledge to be addressed by the project.
    • State the problems to be solved.
    • State the project’s significance.
  4. Project Description:
    • State the goals and objectives of the project.
    • Present the methodology and the timeline.
  5. Project Needs and Cost:
    • Outline the main budget.
    • Explain/justify how the budget will be used.
Concept Paper for Academic Research
  1. Title Page
  2. Background of the Study
  3. Preliminary Literature Review
  4. Statement of the Problem/Objectives
  5. Abridged Methodology
  6. Timeline
  7. References

Position Paper

  • Presents the writer's stand or viewpoint on a particular issue.
  • Entails outlining arguments and proposing a course of action.
  • Can be essential in bringing about societal change.
Parts of a Position Paper
  1. Introduction:
    • Presents the issue and grabs the reader's attention.
    • Defines the issues and discusses the background.
    • Provides a general statement of your position.
  2. Body:
    • State your main argument.
    • Provide sufficient evidence, including statistical data.
    • Provide counterarguments.
  3. Conclusion:
    • Restate your position and main argument.
    • Suggest a course of action.
    • Add what makes your position superior.
    • End with a powerful statement.

Approaches

  • Inductive: Discusses from specific to general ideas.
  • Deductive: Starts with the general theory and moves to a specific hypothesis.