8.3 Problems with Memory - Psychology 2e | OpenStax

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

  • Compare and contrast the two types of amnesia
  • Discuss the unreliability of eyewitness testimony
  • Discuss encoding failure
  • Discuss the various memory errors
  • Compare and contrast the two types of interference

Introduction to Memory

You may pride yourself on your amazing ability to remember the birthdates and ages of all of your friends and family members, or you may be able to recall vivid details of your 5th birthday party at Chuck E. Cheese’s. However, all of us have at times felt frustrated, and even embarrassed, when our memories have failed us. There are several reasons why this happens.

Amnesia

Definition: Amnesia is the loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma.

  • Case Study: Endel Tulving (2002) and his colleagues at the University of Toronto studied K.C., who suffered a traumatic head injury from a motorcycle accident, leading to severe amnesia.
    • Tulving noted that "the outstanding fact about K.C.'s mental make-up is his utter inability to remember any events, circumstances, or situations from his own life."
    • His episodic amnesia encompasses his entire life from birth to the present, with the exception of experiences from the last minute or two (Tulving, 2002, p. 14).
Types of Amnesia

  1. Anterograde Amnesia

    • Cause: Commonly caused by brain trauma, such as a blow to the head.
    • Effect: Inability to remember new information while retaining memory of events prior to the injury.
    • Affected Area: The hippocampus is usually involved.
    • Mechanism: Damage results in the inability to transfer information from short-term to long-term memory, meaning difficulties in memory consolidation.
    • Example: Case of H.M., who could read the same magazine repeatedly with no memory of previous readings, and could not recognize people encountered after his surgery.
    • People with this form can still form procedural memories (Bayley & Squire, 2002).

  2. Retrograde Amnesia

    • Definition: Loss of memory for events occurring prior to the trauma.
    • Effect: Individuals may forget some or all past experiences, with a significant focus on episodic memories.
    • Hypothetical Scenario: Awaking in a hospital surrounded by people claiming relationship to you—a common trope in films, but a reality for sufferer Scott Bolzan, who lost memories spanning 46 years due to a head injury.
    • Hollywood vs. Reality: The depiction of amnesia in films overdramatizes the phenomenon, contrasting the real-life implications faced by victims.

Memory Construction and Reconstruction

Definition: The creation of new memories is termed construction, while retrieving old memories is known as reconstruction. This process can alter and modify memories as they are recalled, resulting in inaccuracies.

  • Retrieved memories are flexible, allowing alterations when combined with new experiences (Roediger & DeSoto, 2015).
Suggestibility
  • Effect of Misinformation: Witnesses can be misled by external suggestions, leading to false memory recollections.
  • Example: Analysis of the 2002 DC sniper cases highlights how public suggestions can steer witnesses’ memories towards incorrect details (e