class 2 Belgian society and politics
history helps us understand the present
critical junctures and path dependency; 4 junctures
the formation of the belgian state in 1830
reforms of the electoral system
institutionalization of linguistic divide
shifting economic power from South to North
Belgium avant la lettre
pre-independence period
Burgundy period (14th-15th c): regions connected through marriage leaders
± 20 states in BE-NL-FR-LUX-GER
reigned by dukes of Burgundy
acquired through marriage, inheritance, financial compensations
end: Mary of Burgundy marries habsburg
Habsburg period (16th-18th c)
Charles V:
Burgundy territories, Holy Roman Empire, Austria, Spain, Italy
creates the Union of 17 Provinces
attempt to unify ‘The Netherlands’ within empire
estates-general
Son Philip II:
confronted with (protestant) revolt in Northern provinces → 80 years war
treaty of munster (1648):
northern (protestant) part: independent
southern (catholic) part: remains under Habsburg rule
Brabant revolution (1790)
revolt against Habsburg emperor
inspired by French revolution
starts in Brabant/Brussels
proclamation of ‘Etats Belgiques Unis’ (United Belgian States)
fails: re-integration into Habsburg Empire
But…
1815: congres of Vienna
great powers (RUS, GER, AU, UK) reconstitute power balance
create ‘United Kingdom Of The Netherlands’
but: separated for almost 200 years
North: independent, protestant, Dutch, overseas trade
South: Habsburg rule, Catholic, French, industry
King William I (house of Orange-Nassau)
economic investments but quite autocratic
causes frictions in the South (catholics and liberals annoyed)
among catholics: re-instate power of the church after Napoleon
among liberals: attracted by principles of French Revolution
the 1830 revolution
Belgian revolution and independence
Protest against William I culminates in 1830
economic crisis: bad harvest, unemployment, automatization → protest spreads to general public
opera ‘La muette de Portici’ (mute girl of portici) → triggers riots in Brussels
4th October: declaration of independence
formation of a new state
first critical juncture
history and events in 1830: important future consequences
religion
catholicism (1648)
tensions with liberals (intellectuals, economic elites)
language
Dutch standardized in Netherlands
Belgium:
SOuth: French
North: Dutch → but elites have French as lingua franca
capital of Brussels
logical choice: important city under Habsburg rule and start of Brabant revolt and riots 1830
consequences:
North of linguistic divide
Dutch dialect, soon replaced by French (lingua franca)
expansions of Brussels = expansion of French into Flanders
constitutional monarchy
congress of Vienna created ‘United Kingdom of the Netherlands’
after independence: pragmatic decision to install monarchy
new state needs great powers approval
Leopold of Saxen-Cobourg-Gotha: German descent, good diplomat (married British crownprincess and French princess second)
but powers bound by (liberal) constitution
1-3 → still complicates politics today
consolidation of a young state
consolidation and unionism
first years uncertain: William I doesn’t accept independence, invades Belgium (France helps out)
period of unionism
cooperation between catholic and liberal elites
main goal: secure independence
maintain goodwill of great powers
normalize relationship with the Netherlands
design constitution
provisional government → executive, organize elections
national congress → 200 elected members: design constitution (national congress
exists of elite, btw)
the new constitution
unitary state
liberal with some conservative accents
parliamentary system (bicameralism) + majoritarian electoral system
house: directly elected (pay tax to vote btw)
senate: conservative counterweight (even higher tax, only 400 eligible)
ministers accountable to parliament (selected by king)
freedom of press, education, association and religion
divisions start to show
1839: peace with Netherlands (treaty of 24 articles)
but compensations: part of debt, loss of territory, political neutrality
period of unionism ends
emergence catholic and liberal party in parliament
alternationsin power → clear opposition and majority
religious cleavage becomes more important
the emergence of social and linguistic conflicts
the religious divide
first school war
freedom of education ↔ practice: mostly catholic
liberal government (1879): law on primary school
each municipality should have a state school
no more subsidies for catholic schools
reaction catholics: mobilization & expansion catholic schools
consequence:
state schools (in north) practically deserted
liberal government suspends diplomatic relations with the Vatican
next elections: liberals lose → catholic government restores old system
rise socio-economic cleavage
industrial revolution
south: steel and coal industry (Charleroi & Liège)
north: agriculture but Ghent (textile) and Antwerp (harbor)
growth labour class
poor conditions, low wages, child labour
no political representation (electoral tax)
gradually: organization into labour movements
1885: Belgian workers party (BWP)
emerges outside parliament
potential electorate? no voting rights
main demand: expansion voting rights
1893: general strike + several protesters killed
universal plural voting (1893)
every man 25+ elligible
but: some get second/third vote when certain characteristics (diploma, savings…)
consequences
a lot more voters
BWP wins a part of the seats
catholic party all seats in the north
liberal party loses seats
rise linguistic cleavage
although freedom fo language → French
language of elite
but not public majority
flemish movement
demands recognition for Dutch, but demands are rejected
radicalization and painful events → first linguistic laws (end 19th c)
Dutch allowed in courts and public administrations; some courses Ghent university
limited scope and effects
later: equality law (1898)
laws debated, passed and published in 2 languages
but other demands denied
Belgium becomes a colonial state
warning influence king in Belgium (parties important)
international ‘scramble of Africa’
Leopold II actively seeks colony
conference of Berlin
Leopold claims Congo
great powers agree: power balance, free trade zone, personal project
Belgian political elites reluctant
Leopold acquires ‘Congo-Free state’
absolute monarch, no constitution, no international monitoring
Belgian state becomes a colonial power
growing international protest against Leopold II
exploitation of population & reign of terror
no free trade: personal enrichment (ivory and rubber) and prestige projects
1908: Belgium takes over Congo
investments in mining industry
only after WWII: somewhat improved life conditions of laborers
paternalistic investments in education, social protection
Congo will only become independent in 1960
national politics: electoral reforms
main victim plural voting system = liberals
majoritarian system:
dominance catholics in rural areas (north)
dominance socialists in industrial areas (south)
liberal voters diffused over territory
1900: from majoritarian to PR (proportional representation) system
multi-member constituencies
demand of liberals, but also socialists
first country in the world
allows liberal party to survive
1919: universal suffrage
= pact of Loppem
from plural voting to 1man 1vote
demand of socialists → no more privileges
electoral reforms
second critical juncture
electoral reforms: important future consequences
consolidation of BWP
universal suffrage = translation of (potential) electoral support into seats
strongest in the south of the country
shifting socio-economic position of catholic party
growing sensitiveness towards demands of Flemish workers
internal divisions: leftist vs conservative factions
still visible today
the multiparty system is here to stay
proportional electoral system → better conditions for new parties
the emergence of coalition governments
party fragmentation in parliament → need to co-operate
the birth of conscociationalism
coalitions, compromises, power-sharing
WWI (1914-1948)
Germany invades Belgium
king Albert I: commander-in-chief; defensive strategy
retreats + German army halted at Yser river
4 years of trench warfare
Belgian territory almost completely occupied
war crimes, executions, forced labour
large migration flows to NL and FR
radicalization Flemish movement
linguistic demands insufficiently adressed
Germand ‘Flamenpolitik’
Flemish University of Ghent’
plans to restructure (or split) Belgium
= birth of anti-Belgian Flemish nationalism
front movement
dissatified Flemish soldiers in army with Francophone officers
later: front party
Belgium becomes (somewhat) larger
treaty of Versailles
end WWI
military restrictions and financial sanctions for Germany
territorial changes:
Belgium takes over: German-speaking municipalities and German colonies (Rwanda & Burundi)
emergence of political extremes
interbellum
communist party: succesful across Europe, competitor for BWP
Flemish National Union (VNV)
successor of Front party, anti-Belgian Flemish nationalism
but divided: democratic principals? independence? re-unite with NL?
Rex: populist-fascist party → succesful in the south
institutionalisation of the linguistic divide
interbellum
growing public support for Flemish demands
Flemish-nationalist parties are succesful
stronger Flemish branches with traditional (unitary) parties
1920s-1930s: linguistic laws
creation linguistic areas (can still change)
Ghent University = Dutch-speaking university
laws public administration, education, justice
→ basic idea: linguistic areas (principle of territoriality)
from unitary to federal state
institutionalization of the linguistic divide
third critical juncture
unitary-bilingual Belgium towards formal division
from now: use of language = geographically defined
Flanders = Dutch
Wallonia = French
Brussels = bilingual
→ basis for future state reforms
Flemish not entirely satisfied
linguistic border not fixed → surveys around language division, more towns coutned as Wallonia over time
still division of Catholic university of Leuven
second world war (1940-1945)
Belgium invaded by Germany: government (London) vs Leopold III → royal question
coutnry ruled by German military administration
politics od accommodation: prevent repression and destructions
but also resistance (communists)
and active collaboration (VnV-Rex)
hope of rewards (political influence, regional autonomy, war mayors)
in trade for support at the East front
discredits Flemish movement
postwar period
several burning issues right after WWII
require consociational techniques
royal question → Baudoin king
socio-economic tensions → social pact
second school war → school pact
what about linguistic divide?
Flemish movement = discredited by collaboration VNv
repression: punishments for collaboration by courts and also by people
still dissatisfaction about linguistic laws of 1920s/1930s
correct implementation?
bilingual Brussels?
linguistic border not fixed
a changing economic context (1960s)
economic decline in Wallonia
mining industry: source of wealth in past
now in structural crisis
alternative natural resources (oil, gas), import cheaper coal
closing of mines, unemployment, dependence on state subsidies
Flemish economy flourishes
shift agrarian towards service economy
strong increase in SMEs (small and medium sized enterprises), jobs for higher educated
multinationals (petrochemistry) settle in Flanders
shifting economic center of Belgium
fourth critical juncture
Flanders:
besides demographic majority, now also stronger economy
stronger historical identity (fight for linguistic recognition)
Wallonia
strong realisation of minority position
fear of L’etat-Belgo-Flammand: system that favours the north and disregards the south
breakthrough of regionalist parties
Flemish movement: Volksunie (VU)
heir old Flemish nationalists (VNV)
but: democratic, careful selection of leaders
historic struggle for linguistic-cultural autonomy
now also defenders Flemish economic interests
competitor for Christian democrats (former Catholic party)
successor N-VA
Walloon movement: rassemblement Wallon (RW)
demands:
socio-economic autonomy: boost Walloon economy
secure protection of minority rights in decision-making
Brussels: front Democratique des Francophones (FDF)
defenders rights francophone inhabitants of Brussels
strong defensive reflex against Flemish demands (bilingualism, fixed language border)
still exists: Défi
the splitting of traditional parties
growing tensions North and South
competition of regionalist parties
divides traditional (unitary) parties
first internal factions, later formal splits
towards the first state reform
point of no return?
since 1920s: linguistic border, but not fixed (surveys every 10 years)
problem: Brussels oil stain (2 marches in Brussels, main demand = freeze languistic border)
1962: freezing of linguistic border
unitary Belgium consists of 4 linguistic territories
unilingual (1) Flanders, (2) Wallonia, (3) German-speaking territory and bilingual (4) Brussels ( contained into 19 municipalities
but compensations: facilities
in number of municipalities close to linguistic borders
public administration of services, education also in other language if desired
→ in Flanders temporarily, in Wallonia permanently
tensions in Leuven (1960s)
despite linguistic laws: French division within catholic university of Leuven
university board reveals plans to expand towards south
Flemish movement fears ‘corridor’ & ‘frenchification’
heavy protests
government resigns, christian democratic party splits, regionalist parties win seats
catholic university of Leuven splits (Louvain-La-Neuve)
but more structural solution needed for the country
6 state reforms
1970-2011
transform Belgium into federal state
no blueprint → pragmatic pacification of conflict
north: linguistic-cultural autonomy
south: more economic self-rule
every reform: same basic components
transfer of policy competences and resources
institutional changes: self-rule + shared-rule
finish line?
state reforms initially led to more political stability
but: paradox of federalism
self-rule intensifies divisions and demands for new reforms
demands for state reform remain
conclusions: the weight of history
understand belgium today: look at history
3 cleavages built-in since independence
linguistic tensions due to dominance of French
institutionalization of linguistic divide: basis for future reform
shifting economic power = coincinding cleavages = centrifugal tendencies