History and Culture of Pakistan Vocabulary Review

Early Life and Foundations
    * Born Qutub-ud-Din in 1703 during Aurangzeb’s reign; renamed for his piety.
    * Son of Shah Abdul Rahim, founder of Madrassa Rahimiya in Delhi.
    * Studied in Arabia (1724–1732) under Sheikh Abu Tahir bin Ibrahim.
Core Ideology and Beliefs
    * Identified the decline of the Mughal Empire as a result of neglecting Islamic principles.
    * Believed Muslims suffered due to an incomplete understanding of the Quran.
    * Advocated for a society where all political, social, and economic behaviors were governed by Islam.
    * Aimed for community unity by focusing on fundamental principles rather than sectarian divisions.
Major Contributions and Works
    * Literary Output: Wrote 51 books in Persian and Arabic, including Hujjat Allah al-Baligha and Izalat-Akhfa.
    * Translation: Translated the Quran into Persian to make it accessible to those who did not speak Arabic. His sons, Shah Abdul Qader and Shah Rafi, later translated it into Urdu.
    * Political Strategy: Organized opposition against the Marathas (threatening from the south) and Sikhs (from the north).
    * Military Influence: Wrote to Muslim nobles, eventually convincing Ahmed Shah Abdali of Persia to intervene, leading to the defeat of the Marathas at the Battle of Panipat in 1761.
Legacy and Impact
    * Credited with initiating the Islamic revival in the subcontinent through spiritual and moral regeneration.
    * Built bridges between Muslim sects and emphasized the importance of Jihad against common enemies.
    * Madrassa Rahimiya continued to flourish under his sons, inspiring future generations of leaders.
Biographical Sketch
    * Born near Lucknow in 1786; studied at Madrassa Rahimiya under Shah Waliullah’s sons.
    * Joined the forces of Pathan leader Amir Khan (1810) and learned European weaponry.
    * Acted as both a military commander and a spiritual leader for his troops.
Movement and Ideology
* Jihad Movement: Founded to achieve religious and spiritual freedom from non-Muslim/foreign rule through ar med struggle.
* Believed Muslims must be ruled by Muslims and aimed to rejuvenate Islam by removing un-Islamic customs.
Military Campaigns
    * Targeted the Punjab and NWFP (North West Frontier), then under the Sikh regime of Ranjit Singh.
    * Raised a Mujahideen (holy warriors) force numbering over $80,000$ .
    * Established headquarters near Peshawar in 1826 and defeated the Sikhs at Akora and Hazro.
    * Encountered treachery: Yar Muhammad Khan (a Pathan chief) was bribed by Sikhs to poison Syed Ahmad and desert the battlefield, leading to chaotic defeats.
The Battle of Balakot (1831)
    * Syed Ahmad moved forces to Balakot, a valley protected by mountains on three sides.
    * Betrayed by local leaders who showed the Sikhs a secret mountain path.
    * Despite brave resistance, the Mujahideen were heavily outnumbered; Syed Ahmad and commander Shah Ismail were martyred.
Importance to History
* First instance of a movement organized solely to free Muslims from foreign rule.
* Regarded as the forerunner of the Pakistan Movement; inspired those seeking an independent Islamic state.
Origins and Beliefs
    * Born in East Bengal (1781); spent 19 years in Arabia influenced by Sheikh Muhammad Abdul Wahab.
    * Focused on Faraiz (Islamic duties), leading to the name "Faraizi Movement."
    * Aimed to remove Hindu influences from Muslim worship and restore Muslim pride.
Political and Social Struggle
    * Championed oppressed Muslim peasants against the economic tyranny of Hindu and British landlords (zamindars).
    * Emphasized repentance for past sins and leading a righteous life.
    * Forced out of his home to Dhaka by alarmed landlords; died in 1840.
Leadership of Mohsin-ud-Din (Dudu Miyan)
    * Divided East Bengal into "circles" managed by Khalifas for social and spiritual welfare.
    * Actively helped peasants resist excessive taxes; threatened Jihad against the British.
    * Arrested and imprisoned by the British; the movement declined after his death in 1860.
Internal Factors of Decline
    * Aurangzeb’s Policies: His expensive campaigns (especially 25 years against the Marathas) emptied the treasury. His restrictive social measures (banning alcohol, singing, and dancing) and high taxes made him unpopular.
    * Succession Disputes: Upon his death in 1707, 12 claimants fought for the throne in one decade. Stable rule vanished after Muhammad Shah (1719–1748).
    * Administrative Weakness: The Empire was too vast ( $5000$ miles) to govern from the center. The mansabdari system failed due to lack of central supervision.
    * Military Decay: Long periods of success led to complacency; the army lost its edge against rising powers like the Sikhs and Marathas.
External Threats and Invasions
    * Persian Invasion (1738): Nadir Shah sacked Delhi, taking huge amounts of gold (and prestige) back to Persia.
    * Afghan Invasion (1747): Ahmad Shah Durrani captured Kabul, Peshawar, Lahore, and Kashmir.
    * The Marathas: Replaced the Mughals as the most powerful force in mid-18th century India.
    * The British East India Company (EIC): The ultimate threat. Exploited the Industrial Revolution to bring superior weaponry and wealth to the subcontinent.
Growth of the East India Company
    * Granted monopoly by Queen Elizabeth I (1600); established bases in Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras.
    * Defeated rivals (Portuguese, Dutch, and French) through leaders like Robert Clive.
    * Battle of Plassey (1757): Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah (Nawab of Bengal) via the treachery of Mir Jafar.
    * Battle of Buxar (1764): EIC defeated the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II and took control of revenue collection in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
    * India Act (1784): British government took direct control of EIC territories, appointing a Governor-General.
British Territorial Expansion
    * Doctrine of Lapse (1852): Introduced by Lord Dalhousie; if a ruler died without a natural heir, the British annexed the land (Satara, Nagpur, Jhansi).
    * Annexation of Sindh (1843): Provoked by Sir Charles Napier as a strategic move to secure prestige and borders.
    * Annexation of Punjab (1849): Following the Sikh Wars, the Sikh Empire ended and boundaries were pushed to the NW Frontier (the "Scientific Border").
Impact of British Rule
* Drain of Wealth: Historians estimate £1,000 million was transferred to Britain, contributing to massive famines in late 19th century ( $15$ million dead).
* Anglicization: Persian replaced by English as the official language (1834); English became the medium of education (1835).
Underlying Causes
    * Political: Resentment over the "Doctrine of Lapse" and the seizure of Oudh (1856).
    * Religious/Social: Arrogant British attitude; fears that missionaries were trying to forcibly convert Indians to Christianity.
    * Economic: High taxation of peasants and low salaries for Indian soldiers (sepoys).
    * Military: Indian sepoys were led exclusively by British officers; rumors spread that they would be forced to serve overseas (unacceptable to Hindus).
The Trigger: Greased Cartridges
* In January 1857, new paper cartridges were introduced, alleged to be greased with cow and pig fat (offensive to both Hindus and Muslims).
* May 1857: Sepoys in Meerut refused the cartridges, were court-martialed, then freed by fellow soldiers who marched to Delhi and captured it.
Course and Failure
    * Leadership: The aging Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah II became a unifying symbol.
    * British Retaliation: The British used superior coordination and training to regain Delhi and Lucknow by September 1857.
    * Reasons for Failure:
        1. Lack of Unity: Different groups fought for different reasons; some princes supported the British to keep their own power.
        2. British Strength: Britain was a global superpower with disciplined, modern troops.
Immediate Consequences
    * End of EIC: The East India Company was abolished; the British government took direct control via the "Viceroy."
    * Queen Victoria: Proclaimed Empress of India in 1877.
    * Impact on Muslims: The British blamed Muslims for the revolt, resulting in discriminatory hiring and funding cuts for Muslim schools. Many were reduced to being "porters, messengers, or fillers of inkpots."
Early Career and Philosophy
    * Born 1817 in Delhi; joined the legal system and became a judge.
    * Witnessed the 1857 War; believed armed struggle was futile against the powerful British.
    * Dedicated his life to a "Muslim renaissance" through the "Aligarh Movement."
Aims of the Aligarh Movement
    1. Improve British-Muslim relations by clearing suspicions of disloyalty.
    2. Promote Western education and science among Muslims.
    3. Increase political awareness of the Hindu threat.
Key Projects and Literary Works
    * Reconciliation: Wrote The Loyal Muhammadans of India and Essay on the Causes of the Indian Revolt to convince the British that the 1857 uprising was due to poor administration, not a Muslim conspiracy.
    * Scientific Society (1863): Translated scientific works into Urdu.
    * MAO College (1875): Modeled on Oxford/Cambridge; became a hub for the future leaders of Pakistan (Liaquat Ali Khan, Ayub Khan).
"Two-Nation" Theory and Politics
    * Initially advocated Hindu-Muslim unity but changed his mind due to the Hindi-Urdu controversy (1867).
    * Argued that democracy in India would mean the permanent "tyranny of the majority" (Hindus outnumbering Muslims $4$ to $1$ ).
    * Advised Muslims against joining the Indian National Congress; formed the Mohammedan Defence Alliance (1893).
Urdu as National Language
    * Chosen as the national language to provide cultural identity and bind regions together.
    * Developed from a mixture of Persian, Turkish, Punjabi, and local Delhi dialects during the Sultanate and Mughal eras.
    * Enriched by poets like Amir Khusrau and promoted by the Aligarh Movement.
    * Urdu-Hindi Controversy (1867): Became a major point of friction as Hindus campaigned for Hindi script, driving the "Two-Nation" sentiment.
Regional Languages of Pakistan
    * Sindhi: Ancient language influenced by Arabic/Persian; home to legendary poets like Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai.
    * Balochi: Originally an oral language brought by nomadic tribes from Iran; literature promoted post-partition via Radio Pakistan and various associations.
    * Punjabi: Most widely spoken; rich in mystic Sufi literature (Baba Farid, Bullhe Shah). Now taught up to MA level.
    * Pashto: Spoken in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa; historically used to foster nationalism and resistance to British rule.
Background and Aims
* Turkey (Ottoman Empire) sided with Germany in WWI. Indian Muslims were concerned about the fate of the Khalifa (Sultan of Turkey), the symbolic leader of the global Muslim community.
* Objectives: Maintain the Ottoman Empire’s integrity and protect holy sites (Mecca, Medina).
Cooperation and Non-Cooperation
* Formed the All India Khilafat Conference (1919) including Ali Brothers (Maulana Shaukat Ali and Muhammad Ali Jauhar) and Mahatma Gandhi.
* Gandhi used the movement to launch his Satyagraha (passive resistance) and boycott of British goods.
The Hijrat Movement (1920)
* 18,000 Muslims, declaring India dar-ul-harb (enemy territory), migrated to Afghanistan.
* The Afghan government refused them entry; they returned to find their homes and land gone, resulting in economic ruin.
Reason for Failure
* Chauri Chaura (1922): Violent incident where 21 policemen were killed led Gandhi to call off the non-cooperation campaign, upsetting Muslim allies.
* Kemal Attaturk: The new Turkish leader abolished the Khilafat and exiled the Sultan in 1924, making the Indian movement irrelevant.
Impact on the Pakistan Movement
* Taught Muslims they had political power to organize independently of the British and Hindus.
* The ensuing communal rioting (1921–22) proved that Hindus and Muslims could not maintain long-term harmony, steering the path toward partition.
The Simon Commission (1927)
* All-British committee sent to study reforms; boycotted by Indians for lack of local representation.
The Nehru Report (1928) vs. Jinnah’s 14 Points (1929)
    * Nehru Report called for Hindi as the official language and no separate electorates.
    * Jinnah responded with his 14 Points, demanding a federal system, separate electorates, and one-third Muslim representation in the Central Assembly.
    * Jinnah described this as "the parting of the ways."
The Round Table Conferences (1930 - 1932)
* Three meetings in London to discuss India’s future; largely failed due to Gandhi’s refusal to recognize minority issues and the British government's changing priorities.
The Government of India Act (1935)
* Introduced provincial autonomy and abolished diarchy at the provincial level.
* Expanded voting rights to $25\%$ of the population; criticized by Nehru as a "Charter of Slavery."
1937 Elections and "Congress Tyranny"
    * Congress won comfortably and formed governments in 8 provinces.
    * Bande Matram: Compulsory singing of a Hindu nationalist song.
    * Wardha Scheme: Education reforms focusing on spinning and Hindi; removed religious studies.
    * Outcome: Muslims felt their culture was being erased; celebrated the "Day of Deliverance" when Congress resigned in 1939.
The Pakistan Resolution (1940)
* Passed on March 23 in Lahore; officially demanded independent states for Muslims in the north-west and east.
Failed Compromises
    * Cripps Mission (1942): Offered Dominion status after WWII; rejected by both parties.
    * Quit India Movement: Gandhi’s unsuccessful attempt to force immediate British withdrawal during the war.
    * Cabinet Mission Plan (1946): Proposed a three-tier system; failed because Nehru claimed Congress wouldn't be bound by it.
The 3 June Plan and Partition
    * Lord Mountbatten announced the partition of the subcontinent into India and Pakistan.
    * Radcliffe Award: The new boundaries were controversial; Gurdaspur and Ferozepur (Muslim majority areas) were given to India.
    * August 14, 1947: Pakistan becomes an independent nation.
Geographical Obstacles: East and West Pakistan separated by $1000$ miles of Indian territory.
Accession of Princely States: Disputed control over Jammu and Kashmir, Junagadh, and Hyderabad.
The Refugee Crisis: Over $10$ million people migrated; massive communal violence left nearly $1$ million dead.
Asset Division: India withheld financial assets and military equipment; refused to share 16 ordinance factories.
Canal Water Dispute: India cut off water to canals in West Punjab (1948); temporarily resolved before the Indus Water Treaty.
Liaquat Ali Khan (1947–51): Passed the Objectives Resolution (1949), the foundation for future constitutions.
Ayub Khan (1958–69): "Decade of Progress." Introduced Basic Democracies (local government) and the 1962 Constitution (Presidential system). Oversaw the "Green Revolution" in agriculture.
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto (1971–77): Restored democracy via the 1973 Constitution. Nationalized key industries and introduced land reforms to help peasant farmers.
Zia-ul-Haq (1977–88): Implemented Islamization (Shariat courts, Hudood ordinances, Zakat tax). Provided crucial support to the Afghan Mujahideen against the Soviet Union.
Post-Zia Era (1988–1999): Power struggle between Benazir Bhutto (economic instability, corruption charges) and Nawaz Sharif (privatization, motorway project, nuclear testing in 1998 in response to India). Ended with General Pervez Musharraf's coup in 1999.