PDF ANATOMY FINAL EVOLVE SELF TEST CH. 9-24(NO 19&24)

Ch. 9: Muscular System

Types of Muscle Tissue

• Three types of muscle tissue:

  • Skeletal Muscle: Voluntary muscle attached to bones, responsible for movement.

  • Smooth Muscle: Involuntary muscle found in internal organs and blood vessels.

  • Cardiac Muscle: Involuntary muscle that makes up the heart.

Muscle Attachment Points

• Origin: The attachment point of a muscle that remains stationary during contraction.

Actin

• Definition: Actin is one of the myofilaments that constitute the sarcomere, essential for muscle contraction.

Sarcomere

• Definition: The contractile unit of a muscle cell, consisting of actin and myosin filaments.

Functions of Muscles

• Functions of muscles include movement, maintaining posture, and heat production.

• Excluded Function: Storage.

Muscle Movement Terms

• Prime Mover: A muscle that directly performs a certain movement.

Muscle Contraction Theory

• Sliding Filament Theory: The model explaining how muscles contract by the sliding of actin and myosin filaments over each other.

Muscle Fatigue

• If stimulated repeatedly without adequate rest, muscle contractions weaken, leading to Fatigue.

Threshold Stimulus

• Definition: The minimal level of stimulation required to cause a muscle fiber to contract.

Types of Muscle Contractions

• Contraction types include:

  • Isometric Contraction: Muscle tension increases while muscle length remains unchanged.

  • Excluded Type: Kinetic contraction.

Muscle Hypertrophy

• Definition: An increase in muscle size, often enhanced by strength training.

Muscle Location Examples

• Orbicularis Oris: Found in the face, responsible for facial expressions.

• External and Internal Oblique Muscles: Found in the trunk, aiding in rotation and lateral flexion of the torso.

• Biceps Brachii: Flexes the forearm at the elbow.

• Triceps Brachii: Located on the back of the arm, extends the forearm.

• Hamstring Muscles: Not including the Rectus Femoris.

Joint Movement Terms

• Flexion: Reduces the angle between two bones at a joint.

• Rotation: Movement around a longitudinal axis.

Ch. 10: Nervous System

Overview of the Nervous System

• The nervous system includes all organs except: Vertebrae.

• Major divisions: Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) and Central Nervous System (CNS).

Neurons

• Definition: Cells that conduct nerve impulses, with the axon transmitting impulses away from the body cell.

Myelin

• Definition: The fatty substance surrounding axons, aiding in the rapid transmission of impulses.

Glia Cells

• Microglia: Glial cells that act as scavengers, consuming microbes and debris.

Nervous Tissue Structure

• Myelinated fibers form the White matter of the nervous system.

Neurotransmitters

• Chemical messengers that allow for communication between neurons.

Impulse Regeneration

• Saltatory Conduction: An impulse regeneration method where action potentials jump from node to node along a myelinated axon.

Meninges

• Pia Mater: The innermost layer of the meninges, covering the brain and spinal cord.

Brain Divisions

• The brainstem consists of:

  • Medulla Oblongata

  • Midbrain

  • Pons.

• The Cerebellum: The second largest part of the brain, located beneath the occipital lobe.

Spinal Nerves

• Cranial Nerves: Nerves that originate from the brain.

• There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves connecting to the spinal cord.

Oligodendrocytes

• Glia cells that produce myelin surrounding the nerve fibers in the brain and spinal cord.

Ventricles

• The brain contains large fluid-filled spaces known as ventricles.

• Cerebrospinal Fluid formation occurs in the Choroid Plexus.

Ch. 11: Senses

Classification of Sense Organs

• Sense organs can be classified in multiple aspects: general vs. special, encapsulated vs. unencapsulated, type of stimuli that activates them.

Eye Anatomy

• Retina: The innermost coat of the eyeball.

• Proprioceptors: General sense receptors near tendons and muscles.

• Cones: Densely concentrated in the fovea centralis for color and detail vision.

• Aqueous Humor: Fills the anterior cavity of the eye.

• Presbyopia: Condition resulting in farsightedness due to aging.

• Photoreceptor: Receptors found in the eye that respond to light.

• Sclera: The white part of the eye.

Hearing and Balance

• Ossicles: The tiny bones found in the middle ear.

• Sense organs for balance located in the vestibule and semicircular canals.

• Iris: The colored part of the eye in the choroid layer.

Taste and Smell

• Primary taste sensations exclude: Spicy.

• Gustatory cells: Found in the mouth, responsible for the sense of taste.

• Olfactory receptors: Responsible for the sense of smell.

Organ of Hearing

• The Spiral Organ is associated with the sense of hearing.

• The optic nerve connects to the brain's visual cortex located in the occipital lobe.

Ears and Inner Ear Structures

• The Pinna is another term for the auricle.

• The Eustachian tube is not part of the inner ear.

Ch. 12: Endocrine System

Endocrine Glands

• Characteristics of endocrine glands include their lack of ducts leading to body cavities.

Hormones

• Nonsteroid hormones act more slowly than steroid hormones.

• Steroid hormones act more rapidly than nonsteroid hormones.

• Prostaglandins: Tissue hormones that help in communication and control of body functions.

Hormonal Regulation

• Most hormones operate via negative feedback, except Oxytocin, which is an exception.

• Luteinizing Hormone: Responsible for the formation and activity of the corpus luteum.

• Prolactin: Stimulates breast development for lactation.

Pituitary Gland

• ADH (Antidiuretic hormone) and Oxytocin are stored and released by the posterior pituitary gland.

• The Adenohypophysis produces thyroid-stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, and growth hormone.

Gluconeogenesis

• The process stimulated by glucocorticoids to convert amino acids into glucose.

Hypothalamus

• The brain region regulating functions such as body temperature, appetite, and thirst.

Adrenal Medulla

• Produces the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine.

Ghrelin and Pineal Gland

• Ghrelin is secreted by stomach lining cells.

• The body's internal clock is supported by the Pineal gland.

Blood Calcium Levels

• Calcitonin: A hormone that decreases blood calcium levels.

• Diabetes Insipidus: Caused by a hyposecretion of ADH.

• Cushing Syndrome: A condition from hypersecretion of glucocorticoids.

• Myxedema: Resulting from a deficiency in thyroid hormone secretions in adults.

• Insulin: Produced in the beta cells of the pancreas.

Ch. 13: Blood

Blood Composition

• Formed elements in blood include all but plasma.

• Albumin: Plasma protein maintaining blood osmotic pressure.

• Two connective tissues producing blood cells: Myeloid and Lymphoid.

Immune Defense and Anemia

• Globulin: Plasma protein, including antibodies that defend against infections.

• Eosinophil: White blood cell that defends against parasites.

• Anemia: The condition where blood cannot carry sufficient oxygen.

• Fibrinogen: A plasma protein crucial for blood clotting.

Blood Cell Counts and Clotting

• Leukopenia: Abnormally low white blood cell count.

• Platelets are critical for blood clotting along with thrombin and fibrin.

• An embolus is a dislodged part of a clot that circulates in the bloodstream.

Blood Serum vs. Plasma

• Blood serum is distinct from blood plasma as it lacks fibrinogen.

Centrifuged Whole Blood

• A centrifuged tube forms a buffy coat composed of platelets and white blood cells.

• Mature red blood cells have a lifespan of approximately 8 months.

Rh Factor and Blood Types

• Erythroblastosis fetalis: A disease resulting from a mother's Rh antibodies reacting with an Rh-positive baby.

• Calcium is not part of hemoglobin.

• Monocytes are non-granular leukocytes.

• Basophils secrete histamine and heparin.

• Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell that secretes antibodies.

• Type A Blood: Contains anti-B antibodies.

• AB+ blood is universal blood recipient; O- blood is the universal donor.

Ch. 14: Heart & Heart Disease

Heart Structure

• The heart is enclosed in the Pericardium, a loose-fitting sac.

• The thick, contractile middle layer is called the Myocardium.

• The lining of the heart and blood vessels is called Endothelium.

Blood Flow Through the Heart

• Blood from the left atrium passes through the Mitral valve (bicuspid).

• Blood from the right atrium passes through the Tricuspid valve.

Conduction System of the Heart

• Impulse pathway: SA node → AV node → AV bundle → subendocardial fibers.

• Atria are the receiving chambers of the heart.

• Ventricles: Lower chambers, discharging chambers with thicker walls than atria.

Heartbeat Dynamics

• A heartbeat begins with Atrial systole.

• Chordae tendineae: Attach to the bicuplid valve.

• The Pulmonary vein contains oxygen-rich blood.

Coronary Circulation

• Atherosclerosis refers to hardening of the arteries.

• The SA node is the heart's pacemaker.

ECG Waveforms

• QRS complex: Represents ventricular depolarization.

• P wave: Indicates atrial depolarization.

• T wave: Indicates ventricular repolarization.

Cardiac Output

• Is determined by heart rate and stroke volume.

• Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that decreases heart rate.

Ch. 15: Circulation of Blood

Blood Vessel Characteristics

• Arteries do not have valves.

• Veins have valves and return blood to the heart; they can serve as reservoirs.

Aneurysm

• Abnormal widening of an artery section due to wall weakening.

Hepatic Portal Circulation

• Receives blood from the stomach, spleen, and intestines and passes through a second capillary bed.

Blood Return Pathways

• Blood returns to the left atrium via the Pulmonary vein.

• Blood returns to the right atrium via the Inferior vena cava.

• Pulmonary artery carries blood from the right ventricle.

• Aorta receives blood from the left ventricle.

Capillaries and Layers of Blood Vessels

• Capillaries carry blood from small arteries to small veins.

• Tunica externa: Reinforces blood vessel walls with connective tissue fibers.

• Tunica media: Contains smooth muscle.

• Tunica intima: Composed of a single layer of squamous epithelium.

Fetal Circulation Structures

• Foramen ovale: Shunts blood from the right atrium to the left atrium.

• Ductus arteriosus: Connects the aorta and pulmonary artery.

• Ductus venosus: Shunts blood away from the immature liver.

Blood Vessels in Umbilical Cord

• Umbilical arteries do not carry oxygen-rich blood.

Capillary Structure

• Capillaries consist of only the tunica intima.

Venous Blood Return Mechanisms

• Increasing blood viscosity does not assist in moving venous blood back to the heart.

Types of Shock

• Neurogenic shock: Caused by autonomic stimulation imbalances.

• Anaphylactic shock: Caused by acute allergic reactions.

Ch. 16: Lymphatic System & Immunity

Functions of the Lymphatic System

• Key functions: Fluid balance and immunity.

Blood vs. Lymphatic Capillaries

• Blood capillaries: Less porous than lymphatic capillaries.

Lymph Node Functions

• Defense and white blood cell production are primary functions of lymph nodes.

Largest Organ in Lymphatic System

• The Spleen is the largest organ of the lymphatic system.

Thymus

• Thymus functions: Development of T cells, located in the mediastinum, largest at puberty.

Tonsils

• Palatine Tonsils: Located on each side of the throat.

• Pharyngeal Tonsils: Located near the posterior opening of the nasal cavity.

Immune Responses

• Inflammatory response: A set of innate responses occurring in the body.

• Complement cascade: An antigen alters the antibody's shape, exposing complement-binding sites.

Spleen Functions

• Functions of the spleen do not include T cell development.

Immunity and Vaccination

• Obtaining a flu vaccine is an example of artificial active immunity.

• Cell-mediated immunity: T cell immune mechanisms that directly attack invading cells.

• When pharyngeal tonsils are enlarged, they are called adenoids.

• Natural active immunity: Immunity gained from previous infections.

• Natural passive immunity: Immunity provided through maternal antibodies to an infant.

Complement Proteins

• Complement is initially inactive in blood, it becomes active when exposed to antibodies, forming holes in foreign cells.

B cells

• B cells are not involved in cell-mediated immunity.

• Excessive immune reactions to antigens from a different individual of the same species is termed Alloimmunity.

Ch. 17: Respiratory System

Functions of the Respiratory System

• Functions include: Air distribution, gas exchange, and air filtration.

Respiratory Membrane

• The barrier between blood and alveolar air is known as the Respiratory membrane.

Lower Respiratory Tract

• The Pharynx is not part of the lower respiratory tract.

Paranasal Sinuses

• Functions include:

  • Producing mucus for the respiratory tract.

  • Reducing skull weight.

  • Serving as resonant chambers for sound.

Pharynx and Food Prevention

• The epiglottis prevents food from entering the trachea during swallowing.

• Trachea: Extends from the pharynx to the primary bronchi.

Bronchi and Alveoli

• The first branch of the trachea with no cartilage is the Bronchioles.

• Visceral pleura covers the outer surface of the lungs.

Respiration Phases

• Inspiration: Chest cavity pressure decreases.

• Expiration: The diaphragm relaxes.

Gas Exchange

• In external respiration, blood carbon dioxide decreases.

• Internal respiration: Blood carbon dioxide increases and oxygen decreases.

Carbon Dioxide Transport

• Most carbon dioxide in blood is carried as the bicarbonate ion.

Vital Capacity

• The concept of vital capacity excludes residual volume.

Carbon Dioxide in Water

• When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, it can form carbonic acid.

• The respiratory center located in the brainstem controls breathing.

Ch. 18: Digestive System

Digestive System Functions

• The digestive system does not exclusively perform Metabolism.

Nasal Cavity Prevention

• The uvula and soft palate prevent food and liquids from entering the nasal cavity.

• Order of digestive tract wall layers: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, serosa.

Tooth Structure

• The root and neck of teeth are covered by cementum.

Salivary Glands

• Notable salivary glands include all but: submaxillary glands.

Teeth Development

• 20 deciduous teeth are early and replaced by 32 permanent teeth.

Stomach Anatomy

• The stomach's enlarged portion, above the esophagus, is called the fundus.

• The lower part joining the small intestine is the pylorus.

Liver and Pancreas

• The liver functions as both an endocrine and exocrine gland.

• The pancreas secreting pancreatic islet products via the