Chapter 8

MEMORY

Chapter 8

Dr. David R. Earnest

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OUTLINE

• How

• Functions

• Parts of Brain

• Problems

• Enhancement

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Introduction to Memory

• Memory as a Fundamental Concept

  • Questions about remembering:

  • What do you remember?

  • Types of memories: places, people, activities, objects

  • Memory's Importance:

  • Essential to the human experience.

  • Contemplates life without memory.

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Memory Defined

• Memory:

  • Described as our information processing system capable of encoding, storing, and retrieving information over different periods of time.

  • Analogy: Similar to a computer but differs significantly in process and function.

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Processes Involved in Memory

Encoding

• Definition of Encoding:

  • The input of information into the memory system.

• Key Steps in Encoding:

  • Receiving sensory information.

  • Organizing and connecting it to new or existing concepts.

• Types of Memory Processing:

  • Automatic Processing:

  • Includes details such as time, space, frequency, and word meaning without conscious awareness.

  • Effortful Processing:

  • Requires attention and conscious effort to encode information.

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Forms of Encoding

• Types of Encoding Methods:

  • Semantic Encoding:

  • Focus on words and their meanings, involves categorization (e.g., animals, colors).

  • Visual Encoding:

  • Associates actual images and mental images (e.g., cat, pizza).

  • Acoustic Encoding:

  • Focuses on sounds, particularly words along with musical elements like song, rhyme, and rhythm.

  • All encoding methods collaborate; semantic encoding is deemed most effective.

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Stages of Memory Storage

• Storage:

  • The creation of a permanent record of information.

  • Information must pass through three stages before it is stored in long-term memory.

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Sensory Memory

• Definition:

  • Brief memory for stimuli (sights, sounds, tastes, smells, etc.)

• Characteristics:

  • Duration: Typically lasts a few seconds.

  • Outcome: If sensory information is deemed valuable, it is moved to short-term memory; otherwise, it is discarded.

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Short-Term Memory

• Temporary Storage System:

  • Holds incoming sensory memory.

• Duration:

  • Lifespan of 15 to 30 seconds.

• Valuable Information:

  • Information deemed valuable can move to long-term memory, while unvalued information is discarded.

• Rehearsal:

  • Rehearsal facilitates movement from short to long-term memory:

  • Rule: The more rehearsal and practice, the better the retention.

  • Depth of Processing: The deeper one thinks about the information, the better the memory retention.

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Memory Exercise: Short-Term Memory Capacity

• Challenge:

  • Participants must recall a series of numbers presented rapidly:

  • Examples include:

    • 9754, 68259, 913825, 5316842, etc.

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Short-Term Memory Limits

• Capacity Limits:

  • Initial Research (1956): Short-term memory cap at 7 ± 2 items.

  • Follow-up Research (2010): Suggested cap at 4 ± 1 items.

• Factors Affecting Memory:

  • Better recall of random numbers than random letters.

  • Easier to remember information heard rather than seen.

  • Influences such as decay (natural fading over time) and interference (competing information during encoding) affect short-term memory.

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Long-Term Memory

• Definition:

  • Continuous storage of information characterized by an unlimited capacity but limited access and maintenance.

• Formation Duration:

  • Memory formation can occur at the synaptic level in a few hours but remains organized in memory systems across weeks.

Organization of Long-Term Memory

• Structure:

  • Organized in semantic networks, each containing concepts about linguistic information, images, ideas, and life experiences.

• Retrieval Process:

  • Recall activates multiple levels within these networks.

  • Example Network Activation:

  • How peanut butter might link to Communism or holiday gifts through associative memory.

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Types of Long-Term Memory

• Explicit Memory:

  • Consciously trying to remember, recall, and report.

  • Subtypes:

  • Episodic Memory:

    • Contains events personally experienced (episodes), detailing the what, where, and when of an event.

  • Semantic Memory:

    • Knowledge based on language and facts, and understanding of language.

• Implicit Memory:

  • Occurs without conscious awareness.

  • Demonstrated through actions rather than direct recall.

  • Subtypes:

  • Procedural Memory:

    • Knowledge of how to perform tasks and skilled actions.

  • Priming:

    • Exposure to a stimulus affects responses to subsequent stimuli.

  • Emotional Conditioning:

    • Emotional responses to specific stimuli, deriving from classical conditioning.

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Memory Retrieval

• Definition of Retrieval:

  • The act of bringing information out of memory storage into conscious awareness.

• Methods of Retrieval:

  • Recall:

  • Accessing information without cues.

  • Recognition:

  • Identifying information that has previously been learned, aided by cues.

  • Relearning:

  • Learning information that has been previously learned.

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Neuroanatomy Involved in Memory

• Engram:

  • Physical representation of memory within neurons; research continues to explore this concept.

• Brain Structures:

  • Amygdala:

  • Regulates emotions, notably emotional memory formation (e.g., fear responses in rats).

  • Hippocampus:

  • Responsible for memory processing, especially explicit memories.

  • Associated with recognition and spatial memory.

  • Cerebellum:

  • Involved in implicit memories, including procedural tasks.

  • Prefrontal Cortex:

  • Plays a critical role in processing and retaining memories, as evidenced through PET scans.

  • Neurotransmitters:

  • Critical for emotional memories; play roles in forming flashbulb memories.

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Memory Disorders

Amnesia

• Definition:

  • Loss of long-term memory resulting from disease or trauma.

• Types of Amnesia:

  • Anterograde Amnesia:

  • Inability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia; new episodic or semantic memories cannot be formed.

  • Some individuals may still create new procedural memories.

  • Retrograde Amnesia:

  • Loss of memories prior to the trauma.

  • Can affect some or all past memories.

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Memory Reconstruction and Its Implications

• Construction of Memories:

  • The formulation of new memories based upon experiences.

• Reconstruction of Memories:

  • Retrieving old memories, potentially leading to alterations.

  • This process may introduce inaccuracies into later recall.

• Suggestibility and False Memories:

  • Misinformation from external sources may result in false memory creation.

  • Misinformation Effect Paradigm:

  • After exposure to misleading information, individuals may misremember the original event.

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Case Studies on Memory Errors

• Leading Cause of Wrongful Conviction in DNA Exoneration Cases:

  • Statistics:

  • Eyewitness misidentification: 80%

  • Forensic science errors: 60%

  • False confessions: 15%

  • Informant errors: 15%

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• Experiment Example:

  • Source: Loftus and Palmer (1974).

  • Research Findings:

  • Perception of speed impacted by the choice of wording in questioning (e.g., "smashed" vs. "contacted").

  • Demonstrated discrepancies in perceived vehicle speed based on the questioner's verb.

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Cognitive Challenges in Memory Retrieval

• Memory Loss Factors:

  • Encoding Failure:

  • Refers to information not being encoded at all during initial attempts.

  • Memory Errors:

  • Forgetting:

    • Information may be inaccessible due to lack of attention during encoding.

  • Distortion:

    • External sources can lead to altered memories.

  • Intrusion:

    • Difficulty in forgetting traumatic events or memories.

  • Interference:

    • Information can hinder recall of other information.

    • Proactive Interference:

      • Older information obstructs recalling new information.

    • Retroactive Interference:

      • New information obstructs recalling old information.

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Visual Illustrations of Memory Concepts

• Encoding Failure Visuals:

  • Representations of misconceptions about nickel designs and phrases typically misremembered.

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Study Techniques

• Practical Advice for Studying:

  • Refer to comprehensive resources for improved techniques on learning and memory retention.

  • Not mentioned explicitly but acknowledged in concluding remarks.

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Upcoming Topics

• Next Time:

  • Introduction of Chapter 9: Lifespan Development

  • Inquiry into growth and development across the lifespan.

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