Demographics and Displacement of Arabs in 1948

At the beginning of 1948, the Arab population constituted an absolute majority in Palestine, numbering approximately 1.4 million out of a total of 2 million people. This demographic majority was recognized in 15 out of 16 sub-districts. The Arabs owned nearly 90% of the country’s privately owned lands. However, by the end of 1948, more than half of the Arab majority population, over 750,000 individuals, were either expelled from or forced to flee the areas that subsequently became part of the state of Israel. Consequently, only about 150,000 Arabs remained within the borders of Israel. An estimated over 500 Arab villages existed in what became Israel; by the end of 1948, over 400 of these villages had been conquered by Zionist militias or the Israeli army. Residents were typically driven out or fled in fear, leading to the confiscation of their lands, and they were forbidden to return to their original settlements.

Turning Points and Important Agreements

McMahon-Hussein Correspondence

The McMahon-Hussein Correspondence, which took place from July 1914 to January 1916, involved correspondence between Sharif Hussein bin Ali of Mecca and Sir Henry McMahon, the British high commissioner in Egypt. This correspondence was a pivotal diplomatic exchange that set the stage for Arab aspirations for independence following World War I.

Sykes-Picot Agreement

The Sykes-Picot Agreement, made in May 1916, served as a cornerstone for the geopolitical structuring of the Middle East. This agreement secretly divided the Ottoman Empire's territories between the British and the French, outlining zones of direct and indirect control in the region.

Balfour Declaration

The Balfour Declaration, issued on November 2, 1917, was a formal statement from the British government communicating support for the establishment of a “national home for the Jewish people” in Palestine. In the letter from Arthur James Balfour to Lord Rothschild, it was emphasized that while supporting Jewish aspirations, the declaration assured that nothing should prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine. This pivotal document is seen as a key factor in the establishment of Israel.

Allied Supreme Council Meeting

During a meeting of the Allied Supreme Council at San Remo in 1920, the Mandate for Palestine was offered to Great Britain. However, the borders and terms of the mandate were not determined until September 1922.

British Strategic Interests

Around 1915, Britain began expressing anxiety regarding France’s territorial claims in the Middle East, particularly over areas considered strategically vital for oil reserves in Iraq and Iran, as well as for controlling the Suez Canal. Initially, Palestine was not viewed as a territory of strategic importance, but it became significant as a potential buffer zone between French-held territories and British interests in Egypt. This perspective necessitated an internationalized Palestine with British enclaves such as Haifa and Acre.

Politics and Zionism

British interest in Zionism surged in 1916 following the fall of the Asquith government, leading to David Lloyd George’s premiership, which aligned with sympathetic views towards Zionist aspirations. British officials believed that endorsing pro-Zionist stances could win support from Russian Jews, pivotal in influencing the Russian revolutionary efforts to oppose Germany. Nonetheless, Edwin Montagu, a British Jew and the Secretary of State for India, opposed the recognition of Jews as a nation, fearing it could incite anti-Semitism and disrupt the integration of Jews within European societies.

Religious and Humanitarian Factors

British support for Zionism was not solely motivated by self-interest. It was equally driven by a Christian connection to the Old Testament land and a sense of guilt over the treatment of Jews in Europe, fostering a complex interplay of political and humanitarian sentiments.

Faysal-Weizmann Agreement

The Faysal-Weizmann Agreement, signed in January 1919, marked an accord opposing the implementation of the Sykes-Picot Agreement and acknowledging each party’s goals. The Zionist goals included immigration and development in Palestine, with Weizmann's promise of support for Faysal against French influences. Notably, Weizmann had previously assured Faysal that there was no intention to establish a Jewish government or state in Palestine, which influenced Faysal's acceptance of the agreement.

Woodrow Wilson's 14 Points

President Woodrow Wilson’s 14 Points prominently featured self-determination as a principle following World War I. Wilson advocated the establishment of the League of Nations to address international disputes peacefully, oppose the annexation of territories as spoils of war, and suggested that former Ottoman and German territories should be temporarily controlled by world powers to facilitate their preparation for independence, leading to the concept of mandates.

Gallipoli Campaign

The Gallipoli Campaign, occurring from 1915 to 1916 at the Gallipoli peninsula in the Ottoman Empire, was a military endeavor by French and British forces aimed at capturing Constantinople and securing a critical sea route to Russia.

Palestinian Identity and Nationalism

According to Rashid Khalidi, the Palestinians' challenges around 1948 stemmed not from a lack of identity or economic vibrancy, but from their insufficient capacity for social and political mobilization to address these challenges. The lack of state-like structures hindered their political efforts.

Factors of Attachment to Land

Multiple factors contributed to the deep attachment that Arab Palestinians felt towards their land, rooted long before the rise of political Zionism in the late 19th century:

1. The perception of Palestine as a holy land for both Muslim and Christian Arabs.
2. The administrative establishment of Palestine as a distinct entity in 1874, known as the Sanjaq Jerusalem—lasting nearly fifty years during Ottoman rule, encompassing districts like Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Gaza.
3. The apprehension surrounding external encroachments from Europeans, Turks, and British occupiers.
4. A sense of local patriotism pertaining to specific regional identities (e.g., Nablusi, Maqdisi, Khalili).

Role of Media in Palestinian Identity

Two significant newspapers, al-Karmil and Filastin, were influential in fostering and constructing Palestinian identity and a community of shared interests. They resumed publication post-war after being suppressed by the Ottomans. Following the war, an Arab nationalist newspaper called Suriyya al-Janubiyya emerged in Jerusalem. Prior to 1914, Ottomanism and religion were critical pillars of Palestinian identity, but these diminished in importance post-World War One. Palestinian nationalism gained traction after the war, aided by the press and the expansion of education.

Consequences of War

During World War I, Palestine became a battleground, leading to the confiscation of crops and conscription of local peasants into Turkish military service. After the British occupation in April 1918, the Zionist Commission arrived, representing Zionist interests and demanding rights such as equal status for the Hebrew language and permissions for using the Zionist flag. These demands invoked apprehension among Palestinian Arabs.

Formation of the Muslim-Christian Association

In response to rising threats from Zionist activities, Arab Palestinians formed the Muslim-Christian Association in early 1918, with Aref Dajani serving as the mayor of Jerusalem at that time.

British Reactions to Arab Sentiments

While British officials in London expressed support for Zionist claims, local officers shown less sympathy. In reaction to growing unrest amongst Palestinians and resentment from other Arab nations on the eve of World War II, the British issued the 1939 White Paper, which retracted the Balfour Declaration and appeared to promote Arab dominance in a future Palestinian state. This caused internal discord, as some Zionist leaders advocated for immediate statehood, regardless of the cost to Arab populations.

Palestinian Political Landscape

Post-World War I, Palestinian Arabs looked towards Faysal and his Arab government in Syria in hopes of forming a union (envisioning Palestine as southern Syria). However, with the collapse of Faysal's government, these aspirations dwindled, and Palestinians had to confront their struggle against British and Zionist forces.

Leaders and Immigration

Haj Amin al-Husayni ascended as a notable leader of the Palestinian Arab movement, becoming the head of the Supreme Muslim Council in January 1922. Following the war's conclusion, Jewish immigration resumed with the Third Aliyah (1919-1923), primarily attracting young socialists and generating tensions, unrest in Jaffa, and incidents during the Nabi Musa festival in 1921. In reaction to these disturbances, Jewish immigration was temporarily halted by British officials.

Al-Buraq Events

The Al-Buraq or Wailing Wall events occurred between 1928 and 1929, sparked by actions perceived as violations of established norms, including modifying conditions of access to religious sites. Tensions culminated on August 23, 1929, when rumors regarding a potential Jewish assault on the Al-Aqsa Mosque stirred community unrest, resulting in violence that spread from Jerusalem to other cities such as Hebron and Safad.

Shaw Report and Socioeconomic Changes

The British response to the 1929 riots included the formation of a commission led by Sir Walter Shaw, which published findings in March 1930 that traced the riots back to Zionist immigration and land practices. However, the recommendations were rejected, leading to further tension. In the 1930s, the Yishuv (Jewish community) prospered primarily due to the influx of middle-class immigrants from Eastern Europe, exacerbating the disparities between Jewish and Arab populations, which contributed to the outbreak of the Arab Revolt in April 1936.

The 1936 Revolt

The Arab revolt of 1936 witnessed the formation of various political parties, youth organizations, and the establishment of the Arab High Committee. The committee initiated a general strike, advocated for a boycott of Jewish goods, launched attacks on settlements and British forces, and soon focused more on rural conflict. In response, the Peel Commission was formed in 1937 to investigate the underlying causes, introducing a partition plan that proposed assigning 20% of land to Jews and 80% to Arabs, with Jerusalem maintained under British control. The plan was categorically rejected by Arabs while Zionist leaders had mixed feelings, seeking a larger portion of land.

Continuation of Tensions

The Arab revolt intensified as Palestinians began specifically targeting British forces, leading to collaboration between British forces and Zionist organizations like the Haganah to suppress the rebellion. By the late 1930s, as the specter of World War II loomed, British interests shifted towards securing stability in the region, as evidenced by the 1939 White Paper, which retracted the Balfour Declaration and proposed a mixed governance structure for a Jewish national home within an independent Palestinian state. Despite offering a political compromise, both Jewish and Arab factions vehemently opposed the plan. The fallout from the White Paper led prominent Zionist leaders to reconsider Britain's role in their objectives and seek assistance from the United States instead.

Important Events/ Agreements/ Commissions

The following events and agreements are significant in this historical context:

• McMahon-Hussein Correspondence (1914)
• Balfour Declaration (1917)
• The Zionist Commission arrival in April 1918
• Formation of the Muslim-Christian Association (1918)
• Establishment of the Supreme Muslim Council (1922)
• Third Aliyah wave of Jewish immigration (1919-1923)
• Arab Palestinian unrest in 1921, notably in Jaffa during the Nabi Musa festival
• Churchill White Paper (1922)
• Al-Buraq Events (1928-1929)
• The Arab Revolt spanning April 1936 to 1939
• The Peel Commission (1937)
• Exile of the Mufti in 1937
• The 1939 White Paper, reversing the Balfour Declaration
• The rise of Nazi Germany and the Holocaust (1941)
• Biltmore Conference in NYC (May 1942)
• Exploration of alternatives to the White Paper (1942-1945)
• The assassination of Lord Moyne by LEHI in November 1944
• Foundation of the Arab League (1945)
• Irgun bombing of the King David Hotel in July 1946
• UNSCOP (United Nations Special Committee on Palestine), resolution passed on November 29, 1947, regarding the partition of Palestine
• Deir Yassin Massacre by Irgun in April 1948
• Declaration of the establishment of Israel by Ben Gurion on May 14, 1948
• UN Resolution 194 passed on December 11, 1948, concerning Palestinian refugees.