Reform Movements

Muckrackers

• Investigative journalists who addressed social, economic, and political injustices by exposing scandals, corruption, etc.

• First targets were trusts (monopolies) and railroad corruption then later government and urban political corruption

• Ida Tarbell- exposed the Standard Oil Co. trust

• Lincoln Steffens- exposed corruption of political machines and bosses through his book The Shame of the Cities → urban political reform

• Jacob Riis- How the Other Half Lives expose urban poor sanitation and living standards

• Grafts- Form of political corruption using unethical/illegal practices for personal gain includes bribery, embezzlement, nepotism, patronage, etc.

• Impact:

  • Legislative Reforms: The exposure of societal problems by muckrakers contributed to the push for legislative reforms. Their work played a role in the passage of key Progressive Era laws, including the Pure Food and Drug Act, the Meat Inspection Act, and the establishment of regulatory bodies like the Interstate Commerce Commission.

  • Social and Labor Reforms: Muckrakers also shed light on issues related to labor exploitation, prompting calls for improved working conditions, shorter working hours, and better wages. This, in turn, contributed to the labor reforms that aimed to protect workers and improve their living standards.

  • Political Impact: The muckrakers' investigative reports had a significant impact on public opinion, leading to increased demand for political reforms. Politicians who aligned themselves with the Progressive Movement and its goals gained popularity, and many progressive policies were implemented at both the state and federal levels.

Social Gospel

• The pursuit of social justice by social reformers due to growing outrage at social and economic injustices—primarily concerned with reforming nation’s cities (urban poor + corruption)

• Reform movements often associated with religion esp. American Protestantism (also Catholicism + Judaism)

  • Many traditional Church leaders (ministers, priests) left to serve the urban poor

• Salvation Army- Fusion of religion + reform; Christian social welfare organization with a military-esque structure with officers and privates offering material aid and spiritual service to the urban poor

African American Reform

Booker T. Washington-

• Advocated for vocational (job training) education and economic self-sufficiency for African Americans

• Gradual, long-term approach to civil rights by earning respect of the white population and elevating the social status of African Americans and focusing on immediate self-improvement

W.E.B. Du Bois

• Advocated for political and social equality—actively fight for rights not just wait for them to be granted

• Challenged Booker T. Washington—advocated for new approach to civil rights

• Unlike Washington, believed talented African Americans deserved higher university level education

• Founded the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People)

NAACP-

• Civil rights organization primarily utilizing legal means/lawsuits to fight for equal rights

• Succeeded in winning several lawsuits like Guinn v. United States (grandfather clause in Oklahoma declared unconstitutional), Buchanan v. Worley (law requiring residential segregation struck down)

• Advocate for criminal justice reform, addressing issues such as racial profiling, police brutality, and disparities in the criminal justice system

• Addressed lynching of African Americans in the South—Du Bois advocated for making lynching illegal (most lynchers were not proscecuted)

Women’s Suffrage

• Considered a radical movement—antisuffragists argued they challenged the beliefs that men and women served different “spheres” in life posed threat to the natural order of the world

  associated suffrage with promiscuity, neglect of children, and divorce

• NAWSA (National American Women’s Suffrage Association) formed and suffrage movement gained support due to leaders justifying suffrage in safer ways—NOT challenging the separate sphere philosophy but because women’s roles as mothers, wives, homemakers brought unique experiences/viewpoints to public life + enfranchising women help the temperance movement and prevent wars

• Women’s contributions in World War I helped push for women’s suffrage with the 19th amendment

• Florence Kelley: Social reformer activist for labor rights, women’s and children’s rights

  • Worked in the Hull House to improve conditions for immigrants and the urban poor

  • Led labor reform to improve working conditions—appointed as a Chief Factory Inspector

  • Helped established the National Consumer’s League (NCL) supported labor rights, improved wages and workplace conditions

  • Advocate for abolition of child labor → contribute to the passage of Keating-Owen Act federal child labor law

  • Member of the NAWSA supported women’s suffrage

Temperance Movement

• Alcohol addiction—led to domestic violence, murder, decreased work efficiency

• Prohibition organizations like the WCTU (Women’s Christian Temperance Union) and Anti-Saloon League advocate for legal abolition of alcohol

4 Progessive Amendments

• 16th Amendment (1913): The 16th Amendment granted Congress the power to levy income taxes. This amendment marked a significant shift in the federal government's ability to generate revenue and allowed for a more progressive tax system, where individuals with higher incomes were taxed at higher rates.

• 17th Amendment (1913): The 17th Amendment altered the process of electing U.S. Senators by allowing the people to directly elect senators rather than senators being chosen by state legislatures. This increased democratic representation and reducing the influence of political machines.

• 18th Amendment (1920): The 18th Amendment, also known as Prohibition, prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of intoxicating liquors in the United States. This was part of the temperance movement's efforts to reduce alcohol-related social issues.

• 19th Amendment (1920): The 19th Amendment granted women the right to vote. This was a significant milestone in the women's suffrage movement, recognizing and affirming women's political equality.

Imperalism

• Following previous western frontier expansion + importance of foreign trade to Americans, many Americans considered aquiring colonies to further expand markets

• European fervent imperialism in Africa, Asia, etc. fear of being left behind

• Justified imperalism through Social Darwinism- natural for strong nations to dominate weaker nations

• Justified imperalism through racial/intellectual means- considered white, Christian race and values to be superior to other “uncivilized” peoples and duty to help the “less fortunate”

Aquisition of Alaska (1867)

• William Seward, secretary of State helped purchase Alaska from Russia

• Called Seward’s Folley criticized as a waste of money → land had no clear value

• Later discovered valuable oil resources in Alaska

Naval Power

• Alfred Thayer Mahan- argued strong navy essential to controlling foreign markets + becoming a world power → wrote a bookThe Inflluence of Sea Power on it and encouraged US to aquire territory overseas

  • Prerequiristes for sea power included colonies to provide raw materials, markets, and naval bases

  • Advocated for construction of canal across Central America to join the Oceans (Panama Canal) + aquire Hawaii and other Pacific Islands

Spanish-American War/SPAM (1898)

• Led to aquisition of new territories (Mexican cession)

Causes of the war:

• Cuban Revolt-

  • Cuban nationalists attempted to overthrow Spanish colonization from mid-late 1800s

  • Revolts failed and only led to firmer Spanish control

  • Cubans hoped for US support

• Yellow Journalism-

• Writers like Joseph Pulitzer and Williiam Randolph Hearts used exaggerations/false accounts about Spanish occupation in Cuba focusing on sensationalism to influence the opinions of the American public

• De Lome Letter-

  • Spanish minister in the US wrote a letter criticizing president William McKinley (President during the Spanish-American War) → Americans upset w/ Spanish

• U.S.S. Maine

  • American vessel stationed in Havana Harbor ordered to go to Cuba to protect Americans blew up → blamed the Spanish

  • Yellow journalism contributed to anger towards Spanish + support for the war

The War:

• Short war (few months)—Secretary of State John Hay called it “a splendid little war”

• Americans intervened in Spain’s colonies—Cuba + Phillippines

  • Battle of San Juan Hill (Cuba): Roosevelt led the “rough riders” a volunteer army → American victory

  • Santiago Bay (Philippines)- Spanish navy defeated

  • Philippines- George Dewy led a fleet → took out Spanish influence

Post War

• Treaty of Paris (1898)

  • US aquired Spanish colonies including the Philippines (paid 20 million), Guam, Puerto Rico

  • Recognized Cuban independence

  • Question of what to do w/ new territories—colonize or independent

• Philippines Imperialism Controversy

  • Anti-Imperalists did NOT approve of treaty because the US would aquire the Philippines

    • Filipinos should have self-determination + form their own government/nation

    • US imperialism contradicts principles in the Declaration of Independence

    • Imperialism would result in more immigration = lower wages for US workers

    • Included wealthiest dfigures like Andrew Carnegie, Mark Twain, Samuel Gompers, etc.

  • Emiliano Aguinaldo- Filipino leader that leads a rebellion against US imperialism in the Philippines → after 3 years defeated and put under US control

• Annexation of Hawaii

  • Previously negotiated to put a US naval base at Pearl Harbor and sugar exports to America had become the basis of the Hawaiian economy

  • President McKinley approve of takeover of Hawaii (influenced by SPAM events) and created the McKinley tariff

  • McKinley Tariff persudades American sugar planters to push for annexation of Hawaii into the US (to escape the tariff) → staged a revolution to overthrow Queen Liliuokalani of Hawaii → Hawaii becomes a US territory in 1898

  • Hawaii is not annexed until 1959 (also done by McKinley)

• Platt Amendment (1901)

  • American troops stationed in Cuba (1890-1901)

  • Forbids Cuba from signing treaties with foreign nations

  • Allows US to intervene in Cuban affairs

  • US naval base at Guantanamo Bay

• Open Door Policy-

  • Context—Spheres of Influence: Major European nations controlled trade + investments in regions “spheres” of China

  • John Hay wanted to guarentee all nations had equal trading access and rights in China → establish US as world power + controlled spheres of influence

• Panama Canal

  • In 1800s British + US agreed to a joint operation for the building of a canal in Central America connecting the Pacific + Atlantic oceans

  • Britain signed Hay-Pauncefote Treaty (1901) allow US to build canal alone

  • Panama under Colombian occupation strict w/ allowing US to build a canal →

  • Roosevelt promoted Panama to revolt against Colobmia and offered support of US Navy

  • Panama grant US territory to build a canal to repay for its independence

  • Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty (1903) regarding the construction of the Panama Canal granted the US control over a canal zone with right to establish a military prescence to protect the canal in exchange for paying $10 million and an annual rent to Panama

Presidents

Theodore/Teddy Roosevelt

Square Deal

Aimed at addressing various social and political issues including control of corporations, consumer protection, and conservations

Control of Corporations:

• Roosevelt sought to regulate big businesses and monopolies to prevent abuses of power and protect the interests of the American people. He became known as a trustbuster for his efforts to break up monopolistic practices.

• Elkins Act (1903)- address issues related to railroad rebates and discriminatory practices; prohibited rebates (secret discounts to favorted customers/companies) and required public disclosure of shipping rates + practices

• Hepburn Railroad Regulation Act (1906)- reinforced the Interstate Commerce Act to increase the goverment’s power to regulate railroad rates

Consumer Protections

• Protect consumers from unscrupulous business practices and ensure fair competition as well as improving the safety and quality of food and pharmaceutical products

• Pure Food and Drug Act- restricted sale of dangerous or ineffective medicines

• Meat Inspection Act- established standards for he meat packing industry—eliminated diseases transportd by impure meat

  • Context: Upton Sinclair’sThe Jungle exposed the unsanitary conditions of the meatpacking undustry

Conservation

• Roosevelt was a strong advocate for the conservation movement and preservation of natural beauty. Under the Square Deal, Roosevelt took significant steps to preserve public lands, establish national parks, and create the United States Forest Service

Foreign Policy

• Big Stick Policy

  • Aggressive foreign policy through MILITARY means (esp. navy)—motto “speak softly and carry a big stick”

  • Imperialists supported Teddy’s authoritative approach to intervention in foreign affairs while some disliked his intimidation approaches

• Roosevelt Corollary

  • Addition to the Monroe Dotrine—US can intervene in Latin American affairs

  • Purpose: Increase US control and rid of European influence in western hemisphere

  • Enforce through US military prescence in Latin America

Coal Miner’s Strike (1902)

• Coal miners from anthracite coalmines in Pennsylvania—United Mine workers (UMV) demanded higher wages, reduced working hours, improved safetly conditions

• Strikes led to coal shortage affect various industries/households

• Roosevelt intervened in negotiations threatened military force if resolution was not reached

• Established an Anthractie Coal Strike Commission to avoid need for government intervention recommended wage increases, reduced working hours, creation of a conciliation system

Other Reforms: Failed to achieve more stringent reforms like 8-hour workday, inheritance and income taxes, regulation of stock markets, broader compensation for victims of industrial accidents, etc.

William Howard Taft

• Roosevelt’s handpicked successor—criticized by progressives for his lack of reforms

• Dollar Diplomacy- foreign policy/imperialism via economic means by encouraging US banks to provide loans to foreign nations + American businesses to expand overseas esp. in Latin America and Asia

• Expansion of Public Lands: Taft continued Roosevelt's legacy of conservation by adding significant acreage to the national parks system and expanding the number of national forests.

• 16th Amendment: Taft supported and oversaw the ratification of the 16th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1913. This amendment granted Congress the power to levy an income tax, enabling the federal government to diversify its sources of revenue.

• Trust Busting: Taft continued and expanded upon the antitrust policies initiated by his predecessor, Theodore Roosevelt. During his term, Taft pursued more antitrust cases than Roosevelt and focused on breaking up trusts and monopolies.

  • Mann-Elkins Act of 1910 expanded the regulatory powers of the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) over telegraph and telephone companies.

• Republican Party Division: Divisions within the Republican Party between more conservative republicans supporting Taft vs the progressive faction “Bull Moose” party led by Theodore Roosevelt. The split in the party contributed to the election of Woodrow Wilson, a Democrat, in the 1912 presidential election

Woodrow Wilson

Represented the Democratic Party and passed several reforms to promote fair competitionand prevent monopolistic practices, tariff/tax, banking, and labor reforms

New Freedom Reforms

Tariff/Tax Reform

• Underwood-Simmons Tariff Act (1913)- Lowered protective tariffs to promote competition and free trade—help break trusts

• Graduated Income Tax- Along with the 16th amendment income tax varies based on income amount

Bank Reform

• Federal Reserve Act (1913)- Federal Reserve decentralized banking system to provide a stable and flexible monetary and banking structure.

  • Consisting of 12 regional banks controlled by individual banks of its district—used to support loans to private banks at an interest rate

  • New Federal Reserve bank notes currency

  • Able to shift funds to troubled areas quickly to meet increasing credit demands/protect imperiled banks

  • Overseen by a national Federal Reserve Board

Monopolies/Antitrust

• Clayton Antitrust Act (1914)- Reinforced the Sherman Antitrust Act prohibit practices that reduced competition, price discrimination, exclusive dealing/typing arrangements

  • Also legalized strikes/picketing/boycotts and recognized rights of workers to unionize and use collective bargaining

• Federal Trade Commission Act (1914)- Created regulatory agency to oversee business practices by prosecuting unfair trade/business practices and investigating corporate behavior

Labor Reforms:

• The Adamson Act of 1916 established an eight-hour workday for railroad employees, setting a precedent for later labor reforms.

• Keating-Owen Act (1916)- federal law regulating child labor by prohibiting shipment of goods produced by udneraged children across state lines (struck down by courts)

Causes of WWI: MAIN

Militarism- 

• Context: Scientific revolution, constant fighting in Europe leads to weapons innovation

• Weapons like machine gun never seen before cause MASS DESTRUCTION 

• Due to imperialism built strong military to protect overseas interest (British navy, French + German military) 

• Britain vs Germany military RIVALS 

• Universal Conscription- Germany mandatory military service 

• *Tensions already high between European states had planned to attack each other 

Alliances- 

• Triple alliance becomes CENTRAL POWERS (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy later replaced by Ottoman) 

• Triple entente becomes ALLIED POWERS (Britain, France, Russia) 

• Secretive alliances = small conflict drags everyone into the war 

Nationalism-  

• Pride and prestige 

• Self-determination (Belgium, Balkans, Serbia) 

• Balkans has strong nationalism b/c sought after by Austria-Hungary and Russia and Ottomans  

• Greece,  

Imperialism 

• Competition over land fuels rivalries + alliances

• Germany vs France over Morocco

• Russia vs Austria-Hungary over the Balkans

Assassination (spark) 

• In 1914- Assassination of Austria-Hungary Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo (Bosnia- which had recently been annexed) by Serbian nationalistGavrilo Princip of the Black Hand

1. Austria-Hungary blame Serbia for Ferdinand’s death and declares war against Serbia

2. Germany pledges support for Austria-Hungary

3. Russia pledges support for Serbia

4. Germanydeclares war on Russia

5. France pledges support for Russia

6. Germany declares war on France

7. GermanyinvadesBelgium on the way to France 

8. Great BritainsupportsBelgium + declares war on Germany

Americans join the War 

• America initially neutral

• Many Americans had economic relations with Allied Powers (US banks lend $) 

• Sinking of Lusitania 1915: German submarine warfare—Americans on the ship die after Germans torpedo British passenger liner without warning → Wilson demanded Germany promise not to torpedo ships w/out warning 

• Election of 1916 peace vs. war became the central issue with pacificsts vs interventionalists Wilson inititally denounced US military buildup later changed his mind due to growing tensions with Germany

• Zimmerman Telegram 1917: US heard Germany send secret message to Mexico asking their alliance in exchange for permission to invade the US and retake territory → built popular sentiment for war

• *Germany resumes unrestricted submarine warfare Feb-May 1917: Germanysinks American ships w/out warning 

• Congress declares war on Germany in April 

• US soldiers dovoys sent to fight in Europe during a critical time where the Allied Powers are struggling

Russia withdraws 

• Peasant revolts and strikes caused by food shortages, army mutinies 

• Czar Nicholas leads fighting on the Eastern front 

• Czar Nicholas  abdicates the throne in the February Revolution

• Sets up provisional govt (does not end Russian involvement in war or redistribute land or end food shortage) 

• Russian Revolution 1917- Vladimir Lenin communist revolution 

• Treaty of Brest-Litovsk 1918- WITHDRAW Russian involvement WWI—Germany can focus troops on western front

AEF and John J Perishing

• American Expeditionary Forces (AEF): The AEF was the United States Army force sent to Europe during World War I to support the Allies commanded by General John J. Pershing and played a significant role in the later stages of the war

  • AEF forces made up of soldiers from the Selective Service Act national draft

  • One of the most diverse forces including women (nurses) and African Americans (still served in segregated units)

• General John J. Perishing

  • Appointed as the commander of the AEF led American troops to join the Allied forces in war

  • Pershing emphasized the importance of American forces maintaining their independent structure rather than being integrated into existing Allied units

  • Pershing was a seasoned military leader with experience in the Spanish-American War, the Philippine-American War, and various military campaigns in the United States.

New War strategies (trench warfare) 

• War of attrition- strategy of wearing down enemy through continuous casualty

• Trench warfare- build trenches to protect from heavy artillery of machine guns 

• Stalemate- downside of trench warfare—each side is stuck no side is gaining ground

• Location: Western Front (fighting between France and Germany) trenches between Germany and Belgium (much of Belgium landscape destroyed) 

• No Man’s Land- The area in between trenches  

• *Trenches had poor living conditions- spread diseases (Trench’s foot, cholera, etc.) 

Machinery 

• Machine Guns

• Tanks- (overcomes stalemate) 

• Poison gas- (Germans use mustard gas) 

• Airplanes- (initially used for reconnaissance—eventually dogfights & machine guns on airplanes) 

• Navy- new battleships using turbine propulsion, hydraulic gun controls, electric light/power, wireless telegraphy, advanced navigational aid

• Submarines- used as weapons driven by diesel rather than steam (often used by Germans to fire torpedoes at Allied commercial ships) 

• Zeppelin- (used to drop bombs) 

Total War & Home Front 

• Total War-Entire society involved and mobilized to support war effort  

• Government start controlling factory production to prepare for war—abandon Laissez Faire

• Women start working in factories take over men’s jobs à Women’s suffrage

• War Propaganda & Censorship- suspend freedom of speech to protect war effort 

Supression of opposition to war-

• Public sentiment about US joining the war had remained divided with many groups like German + Irish Americans (support Central Powers) and Quakers, anticapitalist groups like the Socialist Party members and Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) opposed the war as a meaningless struggle between capitalists; Women’s Peace Party and many mothers also criticized the war

• Outbreaks of feverent patriotism and propoganda garneing support for the war → women joined Red Cross, children raised money for war bonds (purchase bonds to support war and money is returned years later), religious revivalism supported war

• Comittee On Public Information (CPI)- orchestrated a vast propoganda campaign in effort by governmnt to rally public support for the war Ex. pro-war literature, war posters, newspapers and reporter self-censorship, posters + films villainizing Germans, advertisements for citizens to report those who supported peace + critcized the war

• Espionage Act (1917)- Penalized spying, sabotage, and obstruction of the war effort—Post Office Department to ban seditious material from mails (ex. publications by the Socialist Party)

• Sedition Act (1918)- Illegalized any public expression of opposition to war—prosecute anyone who criticized the government/president; Targeted anticapitalist groups

• Schenck v. United States (1919)- Case regarding the restriction of free speech during times of war—declared Constitutional

  • Carles Schenck a member of the Socialist Patty distributed leaflets arguing against the draft charged with the Espionage Act

  • Court established the speech could be restricted if it presented a “clear and present danger” to the US

Paris Peace Conference 1919- Britain, France, Italy, US

• Britain, France want to PUNISH Germany

• US President Wilson pushes his Fourteen Points- list of 14 things he wants to incorporate in the treaty addressing causes of the war including a creation of the League of Nations (international peace keeping organization to solve issues through diplomacy and to prevent war); MOST of his points were NOT INCLUDED 

• Wilson’s 14 Points:

  • Recommendations for adjusting postwar boundaries and establishing new nations to replace the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires—rights of all people to self-determination

  • Principles for governing international conduct—freedom of the seas, open covenants instead of secret treaties, reductions in armaments, free trade, impartial mediation of colonial claims

  • League of Nations implement new principles and territorial adjustments to prevent war

• Treaty of Versailles (mostly punishes Germany) 

  • Germany blamed for starting the war 

  • Germany required to demilitarize (rid of its navy and air force) 

  • Prohibit alliances between Austria-Hungary and Germany

  • Pay war debt to Allies (Germany unable to pay à destruction of its economy) 

  • Additional treaties signed with other Central Powers 

  • Ottoman Empire falls becomes Turkey under Ataturk (Mustafa Kemal) 

• League of Nations established- unable to force nations to do anything & members able to leave anytime (In the US Congress refuses to accept treaty and US does not join the League of Nations) 

• Mandate system- Britain and France ACCESS to Germany’s colonies (IMPERIALSIM PERSISTS)