The Progressive Era: Internal Reform and Political Transformation
Introduction to the Progressive Era
Context: Follows the Gilded Age, characterized by American industrial buildup, urbanization, westward expansion, and imperialism (Philippines, Cuba).
Shift in Focus: Around 1901 (turn of the century), the U.S. shifted its attention from outward expansion to internal affairs, focusing on reform.
Nature of Reform: Engaged in a massive burst of reform addressing all areas of society, largely except for issues of race.
Self-Identification: Reformers identified with "progress" and called themselves "progressives" as they aimed to move society forward.
Underlying Realities (Secrets of the Progressive Era):
Similar to the Gilded Age, which had a "nice layer of gold" but was "rotten underneath," the Progressive Era had hidden complexities.
Most Progressives of this period were racist and classist.
Progressives existed across the political spectrum (Democrats and Republicans), holding different ideas of what "progress" meant.
They were typically upper-class whites who believed their ways and viewpoints should govern everyone.
Motivations and Actions:
Good things: Child labor laws, support for women's suffrage.
Bad things: Supported segregation, upheld Jim Crow laws (disenfranchising Black Americans) based on the belief that "white ways were better."
Upper-class white women often intervened in poor neighborhoods (Black or Irish), criticizing behaviors like having "too many kids" or lacking education.
Core Idea: The era showcased people striving for progress, but with vastly different, and sometimes problematic, definitions of what "forward" entailed.
Theodore Roosevelt and the Challenge of Big Business
Start of Progressivism: Generally considered to have begun when Theodore Roosevelt (TR) became president in 1901.
TR's Ascension: He was Vice President to William McKinley. McKinley was assassinated in 1901 by an anarchist while in a receiving line, leading TR to the presidency.
Pre-Presidency Views: TR had already supported American imperialism and business expansion, as seen in his role with the Rough Riders during the Spanish-American War.
Context of Big Business: By 1901, large corporations like Standard Oil and U.S. Steel existed, capable of producing cheaper goods and providing steady employment, but also prone to abusing power, harming the environment, and mistreating workers.
The Problem: How would the public address the power of big business?
Possible Solutions:
Laissez-faire: The Gilded Age philosophy of minimal government intervention. Progressives largely rejected this, believing it led to abuses.
Antitrust Actions: Breaking up large companies (trusts) into smaller, competing entities. The Sherman Antitrust Act (passed during the Gilded Age but unused) began to be enforced around 1901.
Regulation: Government agencies overseeing company operations to prevent abuses and improve conditions, without necessarily breaking them up.
TR's Character and Philosophy:
Mythological Figure: Known for larger-than-life stories (e.g., finishing a speech after being shot).
Background: Born into an aristocratic, wealthy family (Roosevelts), he came from privilege but aimed to be a different kind of politician.
Political Stance: Decided to look and listen to people's concerns, using his power to help everyone and be objective and fair to all classes.
Example (New York Legislature): Helped Samuel Gompers (later AFL-CIO leader) and cigar rollers against manufacturers' abuses, even though the legislation was later overturned, demonstrating his willingness to support the common person.
Love for Power, tempered by Responsibility: TR loved power (for himself, government, business, U.S.), but also believed in "great responsibility" accompanying great power.
Conservative Reformer: Became a reformer not because he was against big business's power, but because he feared system corruption and societal collapse, which he believed would lead to socialism (a concept he vehemently opposed). He sought to conserve the capitalist system for future generations.
Regulation over Antitrust: Preferred regulation as a means to guide big business, likening it to a parent steadying a child learning to ride a bike—intervening with small adjustments to maintain balance, rather than preventing the ride (antitrust).
TR's Actions Regarding Big Business:
Northern Securities Company Case (1902 - 1904):
Launched a major antitrust action against this holding company, which controlled railroads from Chicago to Seattle.
J.P. Morgan was a key figure behind the merger.
The case proceeded unusually fast (less than 2 years).
The government won, and the Northern Securities Company was prevented from forming, its holdings broken up.
"Trust Buster" Nickname: TR launched 44 additional antitrust actions, including against Standard Oil (John D. Rockefeller), earning him the nickname "Trust Buster."
Strategic Use of Antitrust: He used antitrust actions as a "stick" to force businesses to accept regulation. His message was: "Either accept regulation, or here comes the antitrust stick."
Public Reaction & Power: The public loved his actions, seeing him as a champion, which further increased presidential power and TR's own influence.
Anthracite Coal Strike (1902):
Crisis: Miners in anthracite coal mines (coal used to heat city homes) went on strike, threatening widespread freezing deaths in winter.
Government Intervention: Traditionally, the government sided with management in strikes. TR, however, intervened differently.
Conference: Called a conference between mine owners (including J.P. Morgan) and miner representatives. Owners refused to speak to the miners, enraging TR.
TR's Anger & Fear: TR expressed his frustration, seeing the owners' actions as hindering efforts "to stop socialism" and contributing to corruption.
Deployment of Troops: Owners requested troops to force workers back. TR sent 10,000 troops but ordered them to take over and run the mines, allowing workers to return under government supervision, not the owners' control.
Resolution: This unexpected move forced the owners to negotiate and settle with the miners. It was the first instance of presidential arbitration that did not immediately side with management.
Theodore Roosevelt's First Elected Term (1904 - 1908)
1904 Election: TR ran for his first elected term, incredibly popular and seemingly unstoppable.
Campaign Slogan: "A Square Deal" – implying fairness and equality for everyone.
Opponent: Alton Parker (Democrat), who was overwhelmingly defeated.
Result: TR won with 56\% of the popular vote, the largest margin since Andrew Jackson in 1828. He won despite the continued presence of the "Solid South" as a Democratic stronghold.
Mistake: TR promised not to run in 1908, a pledge that would later complicate his political future as there was no law preventing him from seeking another elected term after completing McKinley's.
Push for More Regulation (1905 onwards):
Reasons:
Personal Evolution: His time in office (Northern Securities, coal strike) made him more progressively minded.
Influences: Surrounded himself with progressive advisors, notably Senator Robert LaFollette (a progressive Republican specializing in railroad abuses).
Fear of Socialists: The Socialist Party of America formed in 1901, and their presidential candidate, Eugene Debs, received 400,000 votes in 1904. TR saw this as a growing threat and believed reform was necessary to counter socialism and preserve capitalism.
Key Progressive Acts (all in 1906):
Hepburn Act:
Strengthened the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC).
Allowed the ICC to investigate and order railroads to lower "unjustly high" rates upon receiving a complaint from shippers.
Gave the ICC actual regulatory power.
Pure Food and Drug Act:
Addressed widespread food additives and issues exposed by muckrakers.
Created a regulation board and oversight for the food and drug industry.
Origins of the modern FDA (Food and Drug Administration).
Meat Inspection Act:
Prompted by Upton Sinclair's book, The Jungle, which exposed horrific conditions in the meatpacking industry.
TR ordered an investigation, which found conditions even worse than Sinclair described.
Required federal inspection of meatpacking plants.
Irony: Sinclair wrote The Jungle to highlight child labor abuses (thinking, "Somebody think of the children!"), but the public was more concerned about the safety of their meat ("What the f*** is going in my meat?!"). Sinclair himself later became a socialist.
American Antiquities Act:
TR was a fervent conservationist, big on preserving nature.
Purpose: To protect "antiquities" (old objects, historical sites) from relic hunters and preserve Native American history.
Allowed the president, on his own authority, to designate heritage or antiquity sites as national monuments.
Examples: Created the Grand Canyon Monument (later National Park), and Devil's Tower (a religious site for Native Americans) as the first national monument.
Used this act 18 times to create national monuments and preservation sites in the West.
This conservation work made him very popular.
Later Ambitions and Congressional Resistance (1907-1908):
TR called for even more reforms, including a federal agency to regulate all interstate business and stock market regulation.
Congress resisted, primarily because some within his own Republican Party felt he was moving "too much, too fast" and was becoming too socialist-like.
His earlier promise not to run in 1908 emboldened congressional Republicans to deny him, as they didn't fear repercussions.
William Howard Taft's Presidency (1909 - 1913)
1908 Election: TR kept his promise not to run but was popular enough to choose his successor, his friend William H. Taft.
Taft's Background: From Ohio, educated, wealthy family, progressive Republican.
Campaign: Taft promised to continue TR's progressive agenda (e.g., attempting to lower the protective tariff, a politically sensitive issue for Republicans).
Opponent: William Jennings Bryan (Democrat) lost again.
Result: Taft won by a substantial margin, though less than TR's in 1904.
TR's "Vacation": After Taft's inauguration, TR went on a two-year safari in Africa.
Republican Party Divisions: The divisions within the Republican Party, which began under TR, worsened under Taft, who lacked TR's strong personality to hold them together.
Taft's Character and Career:
Accomplished: The only president to later become a Supreme Court Justice.
Myth Debunked: The widely circulated story of him getting stuck in the White House bathtub is false. He was a large man and simply had a new, larger tub installed.
Innovator: First president to throw out a ceremonial first pitch at a baseball game, though he did it from the stands, setting a tradition for a time.
Successes of Taft's Administration:
Antitrust Actions: Launched twice as many antitrust actions as TR, arguably making him the real "Trust Buster," though TR retained the nickname due to being the first to act prominently.
Constitutional Amendments (first since Reconstruction):
16th Amendment (1913): Authorized the federal government to levy an income tax. The initial top tax bracket rate was 2\%.
17th Amendment (1913): Provided for the direct election of senators by the people, replacing election by state legislatures. Aimed to curb corruption by lobbyists at the state level, though influence merely shifted to Washington D.C.
Failures of Taft's Administration:
Conservation Controversy (Ballinger-Pinchot Affair):
Taft appointed Richard Ballinger as Secretary of the Interior. Ballinger was accused of reversing some of TR's conservation policies.
Congress investigated and cleared Ballinger.
Gifford Pinchot (TR's appointee and head of the Forestry Service) publicly criticized Ballinger in the press, creating a rift between a "Taft guy" and a "TR guy."
Taft sided with his appointee and fired Pinchot in 1910. This made Taft appear anti-conservation and disloyal to TR's legacy, further alienating progressives and damaging his public image.
The Election of 1912
Calls for TR's Return: The Ballinger-Pinchot affair and increasing Republican divisions led to calls for TR to return and "save the country."
TR's Return and "New Nationalism" (1910):
TR returned from Africa in 1910 and immediately embarked on a speech tour, introducing his concept of "New Nationalism."
Core Idea: Called for comprehensive progressive reform in all areas of American life (except race relations), with the national government acting as the primary agent of reform and economic regulation.
Rejection of Laissez-faire: A direct rebuttal of laissez-faire, advocating strong federal power to address societal and economic issues.
Motivation: Still driven by the fear of societal collapse leading to socialism, believing a strong, interventionist government was necessary to conserve capitalism.
Taft's Reaction: Taft saw TR's return and speeches as an attack and an attempt to steal his spotlight, leading to a profound personal and political rift.
TR's Candidacy (1912): Despite advice to wait, TR announced he would run for president again, risking splitting the Republican Party.
Republican Nomination Fight:
A bitter and personal fight between TR and Taft.
Primary States: TR won all 13 Republican primaries (e.g., 238 delegates to Taft's 78).
Convention States: Taft, as incumbent president and head of the party, controlled the state convention mechanisms and won all convention delegates.
National Convention: The decision hinged on 252 disputed votes. The convention chairman (appointed by Taft) sided with Taft, securing his nomination.
The Progressive Party (Bull Moose Party):
TR, feeling "robbed," stormed out of the convention.
His supporters held their own convention and formed the "Progressive Party" (also known as the "Bull Moose Party" after TR declared he felt "as strong as a bull moose").
This was a significant third party in American history, distinct from later Progressive splinter parties.
Democratic Nomination: Woodrow Wilson:
Background: PhD from Johns Hopkins (former history professor), president of Princeton, and governor of New Jersey (for 2 years).
Ideology: A high-minded, idealistic, progressive Democrat, and a southerner.
"New Freedom" Campaign Slogan: Wilson's counterpoint to TR's "New Nationalism," with three main components:
Lowering the protective tariff: Aimed to correct mistakes like Taft's accidental tariff increase.
Creating a better banking system: Addressed the instability of the American banking system.
Strengthening antitrust laws: Intended to break up monopolies and restore economic freedom.
Notably, his "New Freedom" plan did not explicitly address race relations, women's rights, or child labor, focusing primarily on economic restructuring.
The Campaign: Four major parties competed:
Taft (Republican)
TR (Progressive/Bull Moose)
Wilson (Democrat)
Eugene Debs (Socialist Party, who had gained 400,000 votes in 1904 and sought to grow further).
Difference between Wilson and TR: TR favored government regulation of big business and protection for the weak, while Wilson focused on breaking up monopolies for economic freedom.
1912 Election Results:
Wilson won the presidency.
More than 75\% of the total vote went to a reform or progressive candidate, indicating public demand for change.
Popular Vote: Wilson won with only 42\% of the popular vote, a minority victory.
Electoral Vote: Wilson secured 82\% of the electoral vote, winning many states by narrow margins due to the Republican split.
Impact of Republican Split: If TR and Taft's votes were combined, the Republican candidate would have easily defeated Wilson, highlighting the cost of internal party division.
TR won more states than Taft.
Historical Note on Political Party Colors: Historically, Democrats were often represented by red and Republicans by blue until the 1988 or 1992 election when media outlets began flipping the colors, leading to the "red state/blue state" dichotomy. This shift is criticized as oversimplifying complex political discourse.
Woodrow Wilson's First Term and the "New Freedom"
Immediate Action (1913): Wilson called Congress into special session to address his "New Freedom" agenda.
1. Lowering the Protective Tariff:
Underwood-Simmons Tariff (1913): Unlike previous attempts, Wilson directly appealed to the American people to pressure politicians. It was the first significant lowering of the protective tariff since the Civil War.
Success: First major promise fulfilled.
2. A Better Banking System:
Federal Reserve Act (1913): Created the Federal Reserve System (the central banking system still in place today).
Structure: Maintained private enterprise banking but established the Federal Reserve Board to regulate interest rates and money supply.
Debate: The Federal Reserve remains a subject of debate regarding the role of a private bank controlling public funds.
Success: Second major promise fulfilled.
3. Strengthening Antitrust Laws:
Clayton Antitrust Act (1914): Wilson aimed to be a greater "trust buster" than TR or Taft, and this act was passed to strengthen antitrust laws and clarify what was considered an illegal restraint of trade.
Shift in Thinking: During the process of passing the Clayton Act, Wilson realized that simply breaking up monopolies was not the ultimate answer. He observed the challenges of exhaustively listing every potential illegal business practice, a problem also inherent in the Sherman Act.
Federal Trade Commission Act (1914): Concurrent with the Clayton Act, Wilson supported and passed this act, which created a commission to regulate all interstate business.
Evolution of Policy: This move mirrored TR's original idea of regulation, suggesting that while Wilson fulfilled his campaign promise for antitrust legislation, he pragmatically embraced regulation upon understanding the complexities of governing.
Future Focus: Wilson's presidency would soon be dominated by World War I, which will be the subject of the next lecture.