Study Notes: Native American History and U.S. Policies

Marketing and Educational Resources for Native American Studies

  • Bedford Digital Collections:

    • Offers a dynamic approach to teaching U.S. history with primary sources.

    • Each curated project is authored by historians focusing on favorite topics.

    • Projects include:

    • Pontiac's War by Eric Hinderaker

    • Building a Creek Nation: Reading the Letters of Alexander McGillivray by Kathleen DuVal

    • Debating Federal Indian Removal Policy in the 1830s by John P. Bowes

    • Sand Creek: Battle or Massacre? by Elliott West

    • The Laguna Pueblo Baseball Game Controversy of the 1920s by Flannery Burke

Historical Timeline of U.S. Indian Policy (1869-1924)

  • 1869: Act creating Board of Indian Commissioners.

  • Ely S. Parker appointed as Commissioner of Indian Affairs; first Indian in the role.

  • 1875: 72 southern Plains Indian POWs are incarcerated at Fort Marion, Florida.

  • 1878: Hampton Institute admits its first Indian students.

  • 1879: Carlisle Indian School established.

  • 1881: Helen Hunt Jackson publishes A Century of Dishonor, criticizing U.S. treatment of Indians.

  • 1882: Indian Rights Association founded.

  • 1883: Establishment of Courts of Indian Offenses on reservations.

  • 1887: Dawes Allotment Act introduced; individual land allotments to Indians.

  • 1924: Indian Citizenship Act extends citizenship to all Indians.

Key Focus Questions

  1. How did the U.S. government control Indian life on the reservations, and how did Indian people adjust and resist?

  2. What were the goals of Indian boarding schools, and how did Native students utilize the education they received?

  3. How did Indians and their leaders maintain aspects of their culture in the face of acculturation?

Americanization Efforts after Civil War

  • Post-Civil War era focused on assimilating Indians into American culture.

  • Various U.S. government groups competed for control over Indian affairs:

    • The Army

    • The Indian Office

    • State governments

    • Business interests

    • Humanitarian reformers

  • Ulysses S. Grant's Presidency (1869-1877):

    • Established a "peace policy" that included churchmen in government positions.

    • Ely S. Parker, a key figure as appointed commissioner, represented Indian interests.

  • Growing humanitarian interest led to attempts at reformation: Helen Hunt Jackson highlighted U.S. policy failures in her works.

Corruption and Mismanagement in Indian Policy

  • The Board of Indian Commissioners (established 1869) aimed to address mismanagement of Indian affairs.

  • Indian Rights Association aimed to protect the rights of Indians.

  • Captain Richard Henry Pratt, founder of the Carlisle Indian boarding school, advanced the assimilationist phrase: "Kill the Indian, Save the Man."

  • Major Crimes Act and Dawes Act initiatives aimed to dismantle tribal governance and transform Indian lifestyles.

Detribalization Policies

  • Aimed at eradicating tribal life by promoting sedentary lifestyles and individual land ownership.

  • Policies functioned through economic dependency on government rations, creating conflict within communities between Indian agents and traditional practices.

Federal Education Policies and Boarding Schools

  • Boarding schools were established as primary tools for assimilation.

    • Forced removal of children from families; examples include Pratt's efforts at Fort Marion.

    • Hampton Institute and Carlisle Indian School became models for other educational facilities.

  • Attendance was mandated by government law, with potential punishment for non-compliance.

  • Schools were places of military-style discipline and cultural erasure.

    • Strict dress codes and forced language changes were applied.

    • Reported high mortality rates due to disease and neglect, exemplified by experiences recounted by students.

Legacy of Internment and Education Systems

  • Graduates often faced an unwelcoming society that rejected them as equals, creating bitterness.

  • However, some became educators themselves and contributed to dual cultural preservation efforts.

  • Figures like Charles Eastman (Ohiyesa) exemplified living in both traditional and contemporary worlds and advocated for Indian rights.

Conclusion

  • Despite systematic attempts at erasure, Indian cultures displayed resilience against assimilation and continued to navigate societal pressures while striving for equitable representation and rights.

Important Terms and Concepts

  • Detribalization: The process through which Indian cultures and tribal affiliations were undermined; although, many resisted the complete dissolution of their identities.

  • Intimate Colonialism: Government strategies aimed specifically at reshaping family structures and domestic roles among Indians to fit American norms.

  • Americanization: The imposition of American culture and values on Native populations, accompanied by policies aiming at cultural and community disruption.

Notable Figures

  • Sarah Winnemucca: Advocate whose writings captured the injustices faced by Native Americans.

  • Helen Hunt Jackson: Author whose works spurred reform efforts for American Indian rights.

  • Ely S. Parker: First Native American Commissioner of Indian Affairs; symbolized a push for reform within government structures.

  • Richard Henry Pratt: Proponent of Indian boarding schools and assimilationist ideologies.

  • Charles Eastman (Ohiyesa): Physician and reformer who represented the duality of Indian and American identities.