Buddhism in India and Beyond

Buddhism in India: History and Development

• The history of Buddhism in India spans from the 5th century BCE to the 13th century CE.
• Buddhism declined in India by the 15th century but saw a revival in modern times.

Early Councils and Schools

• First Council (Rajagrha): Compilation of the Buddha’s teachings by Ananda (disciple) and Upali (Vinaya rules).
• Second Council (Vaisali): Dispute over monastic practices, leading to the first schism.
• Third Council (Pataliputra): The "Great Schism" between the Sthaviras (Elders) and Mahasamghikas (Great Assembly).

The Tripitaka (Three Baskets)

• Sutra Pitaka: Discourses of the Buddha.
• Vinaya Pitaka: Monastic rules.
• Abhidharma Pitaka: Scholastic treatises.

The Mauryan Empire and Asoka

• Asoka’s patronage of Buddhism, his edicts, and the spread of Buddhism beyond India.
• Asoka’s role in the Third Council and his efforts to unify the sangha.
• Stupas as burial mounds for relics; Asoka’s construction of 84,000 stupas.

Stupas and Buddha Images

• The evolution of Buddha images from symbolic representations to human forms.

Vajyarana/Tantric Buddhism

• Emergence of Vajyrana Buddhism in the 7th century, emphasizing rituals, mantras, and rapid enlightenment.
• Key features: mandalas, mudras, mantras, and sexual yoga.

Monastic Centers

• Nalanda and Vikramasila as major centers of Buddhist learning.
• Destruction of monastic universities by Muslim invaders in the 12th-13th centuries.
• Asoka played a crucial role in spreading Buddhism and establishing monastic centers.

Mahāyāna Buddhism

• Mahāyāna emphasizes the Bodhisattva Path and the universality of Buddha Nature.

Mahāyāna Literature

• Prajñāpāramitā Sutras: Focus on the perfection of wisdom and emptiness ("śūnyatā").
• Lotus Sutra: Emphasizes the "One Vehicle" (Ekayana) and the universality of Buddhahood.
• Pure Land Sutras: Focus on Amitabha Buddha and rebirth in the Pure Land.

Mahāyāna Doctrines

• Emptiness (Śūnyatā): All phenomena are empty of inherent existence.
• Buddha Nature: All beings have the potential to become Buddhas.
• Bodhisattva Path: The ideal of postponing personal enlightenment to help others.

Celestial Buddhas and Bodhisattvas

• Amitabha: Buddha of Infinite Light, associated with the Pure Land.
• Avalokitesvara: Bodhisattva of compassion, known as Guanyin in East Asia.
• Manjushri: Bodhisattva of wisdom.

Mahāyāna Schools

• Madhyamaka: Founded by Nagarjuna, emphasizes emptiness and the Middle Way.
• Yogācāra: Founded by Asanga and Vasubandhu, focuses on "mind-only" (cittamatra).
• Pure Land: Focuses on devotion to Amitabha Buddha for rebirth in the Pure Land.

Mahāyāna Logicians

• Nagarjuna: Founder of Madhyamaka, author of Mulamadhyamakakarika.
• Vasubandhu: Key figure in Yogācāra, author of Abhidharmakosha.

Meditation

• Combines calm and insight, emphasizing the union of wisdom and compassion.

Hīnayāna Meditation

• Calm (Samatha): Focuses on concentration and trance states.
• Insight (Vipassana): Focuses on mindfulness and understanding the nature of reality.

Mahāyāna Meditation

• Pure Land Meditation: Visualization of Amitabha Buddha and the Pure Land.
• Tantric Meditation: Use of mandalas, mantras, and visualization of deities.
• Zen Meditation: Use of paradoxical questions to provoke enlightenment.
  • Zazen (Just Sitting): Focuses on sitting meditation and mindfulness.
  • Koan Practice: Use of paradoxical questions to provoke enlightenment.

Stages of Meditation

• Four Trances (Jhanas): Progressive states of deep concentration.
• Formless Realms: Higher states of meditation beyond the material world.

Buddhism in South-east Asia

• Close association between the sangha and the state.
• Temporary ordination for men as a rite of passage.
• Co-existence of Buddhism with local animistic beliefs.

Theravāda Buddhism

• Predominant in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia.
• Fidelity to the Pāli Canon and conservative doctrinal outlook
• Introduction of Buddhism by Mahinda (Asoka’s son) in the 3rd century BCE.
• Theravāda Buddhism became dominant, with key figures like Buddhaghosa.
• Theravāda Buddhism established by King Anawrahta in the 11th century.
• Modern political involvement of monks, especially during the 2007 protests.
• Theravāda Buddhism as the state religion, with strong royal patronage.
• Temporary ordination is common, and the sangha plays a central role in society.
• Blend of Mahāyāna (from China) and Theravāda (from South-east Asia).
• Influence of Zen (Chan) Buddhism, particularly during the Tran dynasty.

Key Characteristics:

• "Teaching of the Elders": Theravāda is the oldest form of Buddhism, claiming to preserve the original teachings of the Buddha.
• Pāli Canon: Theravāda relies on the Tipitaka (Three Baskets) as its primary scripture:
  • Sutta Pitaka: Discourses of the Buddha.
  • Vinaya Pitaka: Monastic rules.
  • Abhidhamma Pitaka: Philosophical and psychological analysis.
• Conservative Approach: Theravāda emphasizes strict adherence to the monastic code (Vinaya) and the original teachings of the Buddha.
• Monastic Life: Monks and nuns play a central role, and temporary ordination is common for laymen.
• Goal: The ultimate goal is to become an Arhat (a fully enlightened being who has achieved Nirvana and is free from the cycle of rebirth).
• Meditation: Focuses on Vipassana (Insight Meditation) and Samatha (Calm Meditation).

Sri Lanka

• Sri Lanka is the oldest center of Theravāda Buddhism, with key texts like the Visuddhimagga.

Vietnam

• Vietnam has a unique blend of Mahāyāna and Theravāda Buddhism, influenced by both China and South-east Asia.

Comparison of Theravāda, Mahāyāna, and Vajrayāna

Mahāyāna Buddhism

• "Great Vehicle": Mahāyāna emerged around 200 BCE as a more inclusive and expansive form of Buddhism.
• Universal Salvation: Emphasizes the ideal of the Bodhisattva—a being who postpones their own enlightenment to help all sentient beings achieve liberation.
• Scriptures: Mahāyāna introduced new sutras, such as the Prajñāpāramitā Sutras, Lotus Sutra, and Pure Land Sutras.
• Goal: The ultimate goal is to achieve Buddhahood (complete enlightenment) for the benefit of all beings.
• Meditation: Combines Samatha and Vipassana, with an emphasis on compassion and wisdom.
• Lay Involvement: Mahāyāna places greater emphasis on the role of lay practitioners.
• Buddha Nature: All beings have the potential to become Buddhas.
• Celestial Buddhas and Bodhisattvas: Figures like Amitabha Buddha (Pure Land) and Avalokiteśvara (Bodhisattva of Compassion) are central to Mahāyāna practice.

Key Doctrines:

• Śūnyatā (Emptiness): All phenomena are empty of inherent existence.
• Bodhisattva Path: A path of compassion and wisdom, involving the Six Perfections (Pāramitās):
  1. Generosity (Dāna)
  2. Morality (Śīla)
  3. Patience (Kṣānti)
  4. Energy (Vīrya)
  5. Meditation (Dhyāna)
  6. Wisdom (Prajñā)

Geographic Spread:

• Predominant in China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and Tibet.

Vajrayāna Buddhism

• "Diamond Vehicle": Vajrayāna is an esoteric form of Buddhism that emerged around the 7th century CE, primarily in Tibet and Mongolia.
• Tantric Practices: Vajrayāna incorporates Tantras (esoteric texts) and emphasizes rituals, mantras, and visualization practices.
• Rapid Enlightenment: Vajrayāna claims to offer a faster path to enlightenment through advanced meditation techniques and the use of mandalas, mudras, and mantras.
• Guru-Disciple Relationship: The guidance of a qualified guru (teacher) is essential for Vajrayāna practice.
• Deity Yoga: Practitioners visualize themselves as deities to transform their ordinary perception into enlightened awareness.

Key Doctrines:

• Trikāya (Three Bodies of the Buddha):
  1. Nirmāṇakāya (Emanation Body): The physical form of the Buddha.
  2. Sambhogakāya (Enjoyment Body): The celestial form of the Buddha.
  3. Dharmakāya (Truth Body): The ultimate reality of the Buddha.
• Mandala: A symbolic representation of the universe used in meditation.
• Mantras: Sacred sounds or phrases (e.g., "Om Mani Padme Hum") used to focus the mind and invoke spiritual power.
• Sexual Symbolism: Some Vajrayāna practices involve the use of sexual imagery to symbolize the union of wisdom and compassion.

Geographic Spread:

• Predominant in Tibet, Bhutan, Mongolia, and parts of Nepal and India.

Comparison Table

Key Points to Remember for the Exam:

1. Theravāda: Focuses on the original teachings, the Arhat ideal, and the Pāli Canon. Predominant in South-east Asia.
2. Mahāyāna: Emphasizes the Bodhisattva path, universal salvation, and new sutras like the Lotus Sutra. Predominant in East Asia.
3. Vajrayāna: An esoteric form of Buddhism that uses Tantras, mantras, and deity yoga for rapid enlightenment. Predominant in Tibet and Mongolia.

Study Tips:

• Review Key Terms: Make sure you understand terms like Tripitaka, Śūnyatā, Bodhisattva, Samatha, and Vipassana.
• Focus on Key Figures: Know the contributions of Asoka, Nagarjuna, Vasubandhu, and Buddhaghosa.
• Compare Schools: Understand the differences between Theravāda, Mahāyāna, and Vajrayāna.
• Practice Essay Questions: Be prepared to write about the development of Buddhism in India, the spread of Buddhism to South-east Asia, and the key doctrines of Mahāyāna. This includes understanding:
  • Four Noble Truths: The foundation of Buddhist teaching.
  • Eightfold Path: The path to liberation.
  • Anatta (No-Self): The doctrine that there is no permanent, unchanging self.
  • Karma and Rebirth: Actions in this life determine future rebirths.