Chapter 29: Wilsonian Progressivism in Peace and War, 1913-1920

Chapter 29: Wilsonian Progressivism in Peace and War, 1913-1920

I. Wilson: The Idealist in Politics

  • (Thomas) Woodrow Wilson

    • Second Democratic president since 1861

    • First president from one of the seceded southern states since Zachary Taylor, 64 years earlier

  • Influences on Wilson

    • Admired the Confederate attempt at independence; inspired his ideal of self-determination

    • Believed in the masses' ability to govern if properly informed, influenced by Jeffersonian democracy

    • Political sermons reflected the influence of his Presbyterian minister-father

  • Wilson's Leadership Style

    • Convinced Congress needed presidential leadership to function properly

    • Relied on his eloquence to appeal to the public directly rather than through Congress, viewing them as the sovereign people.

    • Suffered personality defects, such as the inability to connect with people like Roosevelt.

II. Wilson Tackles the Tariff

  • Wilson's Programs

    • Aimed to assault “the triple wall of privilege”: the tariff, banks, and trusts

    • Focused on tariff first:

    • Called a special session of Congress in early 1913

    • Historical move: delivered his message in person to Congress, rather than sending it by messenger

    • His appeal led to major reductions in the Underwood Tariff by the House

  • Senate Challenges and Public Opinion

    • When Senate faced lobbyists, Wilson urged public support to hold representatives accountable

    • Resulting bill passed in 1913, reducing import fees significantly

  • Significant Legislative Changes

    • Enacted graduated income tax using the 16th Amendment

    • Tax applied for incomes over 3,0003,000; average annual income was 740740

    • By 1917, income tax revenue surpassed tariff revenue

III. Wilson Battles the Bankers

  • Banking Reform

    • Described the nation's banking system as antiquated and inadequate

    • Major issues included inflexible currency, notably evident during the 1907 panic

    • Recommendations supported by Louis D. Brandeis in his book "Other People's Money and How the Bankers Use It" (1914)

  • Call for Reform

    • Presented before Congress in June 1913 advocating decentralized government-backed banks opposed to huge private banks.

  • Federal Reserve Act (1913)

    • Created a Federal Reserve Board appointed by the President to oversee a nationwide system of twelve regional reserve districts, each with its own central bank.

    • Established public control over banking with the authority to issue “Federal Reserve Notes” backed by commercial paper.

  • Impact

    • Enabled quick adjustments of money supply for business needs

IV. The President Tames the Trusts

  • Federal Trade Commission Act (1914)

    • Wilson's third address to Congress resulted in the establishment of a commission to research and regulate industries engaged in interstate commerce.

    • Power to root out unfair trade practices, including illegal competition, false advertising, mislabeling, adulteration, and bribery

  • Clayton Anti-Trust Act (1914)

    • Expanded the list of objectionable practices:

    • Price discrimination and interlocking directorates

    • Provided labor with long-overdue protections:

    • Exempted labor movements from anti-trust prosecutions and legalized strikes and peaceful picketing

    • Samuel Gompers referred to this act as the “Magna Carta of labor”

V. Wilson at the Peak

  • Additional Legislative Achievements

    • Federal Farm Loan Act (1916): Made low-interest credit available to farmers, a long-standing Populist demand

    • Warehouse Act (1916): Authorized loans secured by staple crops

    • Established highway construction and agricultural extension work in state colleges

  • Other Important Acts

    • La Follette Seaman's Act (1915): Ensured decent treatment and living wages for American merchant sailors

    • Workingmen's Compensation Act (1916): Assisted federal civil-service employees during disabilities

    • Child Labor Act (1916): Restricted child labor for goods in interstate commerce, but later voided by the Supreme Court

    • Adamson Act (1916): Officially instituted an eight-hour workday for train employees, including overtime pay

    • Nominated Louis D. Brandeis, first Jew to the Supreme Court, which championed progressive ideals

  • Limitations of Progressivism

    • Wilson's focus did not extend to improving racial equality for African Americans.

VI. New Directions in Foreign Policy

  • Wilson's Ideological Stance

    • Differed from predecessors, rejecting aggressive foreign diplomacy (both Roosevelt’s big-stick diplomacy and Taft’s dollar diplomacy)

    • Upon taking office, declared an end to supporting American investors in Latin America and China

  • Legislative Changes

    • Persuaded Congress to repeal the Panama Canal Tolls Act (1912), creating tensions with Britain

    • Jones Act (1916): Granted territorial status to the Philippines, pending establishment of a “stable government.”

  • Active Stance in Haiti and the Dominican Republic

    • Sent U.S. troops to Haiti during political upheaval, resulting in a 19-year American occupation

    • Employed Roosevelt's corollary to the Monroe Doctrine with a treaty supervising Haitians' finances and police

    • Extended American control in the Dominican Republic for eight years

    • Purchased the Virgin Islands from Denmark in 1917 as part of U.S. territorial expansion

VII. Moralistic Diplomacy in Mexico

  • Mexican Revolution (1913)

    • Mexicans rose against the exploitation by foreign interests, leading to political instability

  • Huerta's Regime

    • Wilson refused to recognize the government of General Victoriano Huerta, characterizing it as tyrannical and corrupt

    • Provided arms to Huerta's rivals: Venustiano Carranza and Francisco “Pancho” Villa.

  • Tampico Incident (April 1914)

    • Arrest of American sailors escalated tensions.

    • Wilson sought Congressional authority for military intervention, eventually seizing the port of Veracruz

  • Aftermath of Mexican Revolution

    • Huerta's government fell in July 1914, replaced by Carranza who opposed American intervention

    • Villa's attacks on American targets, including a raid in Columbus, New Mexico, summoned military response from Wilson

VIII. Thunder Across the Sea

  • Outbreak of World War I (Summer 1914)

    • The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand triggered cascading alliances, drawing multiple nations into conflict

    • United States maintained a sense of isolation, believing in its own security due to distance from Europe

  • American Neutrality

    • Wilson proclaimed neutrality and urged Americans to remain neutral in thought and deed

    • Both the Allies and Central Powers sought to sway public opinion in their favor

  • Anti-German Sentiment

    • Growing incidents, such as the German agents' sabotage, fueled negative perceptions towards Germany

  • Trade Dynamics

    • British blockade severely limited trade with Germany, tipping economic advantage towards the Allies

IX. America Earns Blood Money

  • Economic Transformation

    • British and French war orders revitalized U.S. manufacturing during the recession

    • Wall Street advanced significant funds through J.P. Morgan & Company to the Allies

  • Shift in Trade Relations

    • British blockade curtailed U.S. trade with Germany while favoring Allied nations

    • Germany's declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare escalated tensions with the U.S.

  • Key Incidents

    • Sinking of the Lusitania on May 7, 1915 led to heightened public outrage against Germany

    • Sussex pledge following further incidents called for respect of neutral shipping rights

X. Wilson Wins Reelection in 1916

  • Presidential Campaign Dynamics

    • Wilson's opponent: Charles Evans Hughes, who criticized Wilson’s foreign policy approaches

    • Campaign leaned on Wilson's pledge of keeping Americans out of war

  • Election Results

    • Wilson’s victory hinged on narrow margins, notably in California, allowing him to secure a second term

    • Final electoral count: Wilson 277 to Hughes 254

XI. War by Act of Germany

  • Path to War

    • Escalated by unrestricted submarine warfare declaration by Germany in January 1917

    • Wilson called for military support for American merchant ships

    • The interception of the Zimmermann note proposing a German-Mexican alliance intensified public sentiment towards war

  • Declaration of War

    • Wilson requested Congress for a declaration of war on April 2, 1917, catalyzed by mass atrocities committed by German U-boats

XII. Wilsonian Idealism Enthroned

  • Wilson's War Rhetoric

    • Framed the American participation in WWI as a crusade to make the world safe for democracy

    • Emphasized dissimilarity of U.S. motivations compared to other powers engaged in the war

XIII. Wilson's Fourteen Potent Points

  • Presentation of the Fourteen Points

    • Delivered on January 8, 1918, aiming to lay the foundation for peace after the war.

    • Key points included:

    • Abolishment of secret treaties

    • Freedom of the seas

    • Removal of economic barriers between nations

    • Reduction of armaments

    • Adjustment of colonial claims for native benefaction

    • Self-determination for oppressed minorities

    • Proposal for the League of Nations to prevent future conflicts

XIV. Manipulating Minds and Stifling Dissent

  • Committee on Public Information

    • Led by George Creel, aimed to mobilize public support for the war effort

    • Employed various forms of propaganda to promote Wilson's goals and instill patriotism

  • Legislation Against Dissent

    • Espionage Act of 1917 and Sedition Act of 1918 reflected fear of anti-war sentiment, leading to numerous prosecutions

    • Schenk v. United States (1919) upheld the legality of restricting speech that posed a clear and present danger

XV. Forging a War Economy

  • Economic Mobilization

    • Faced obstacles in mobilizing the economy amidst war demands and traditional reluctance towards federal interventions

    • War Industries Board established in March 1918 under Bernard Baruch aimed to centralize war production efforts

  • Food Administration led by Herbert Hoover

    • Focused on voluntary compliance, which successfully increased farm productivity without compulsory rationing

XVI. Workers in Wartime

  • Labor Dynamics during WWI

    • Labor supported the war, but strikes increased due to inflation and working conditions

    • The sentiment “Labor Will Win the War” reflected in the War Department's approach to manage labor forces

  • Unionization and Racial Conflict

    • Labor unions experienced growth as workers sought better conditions, leading to tens of thousands of black workers migrating north

XVII. Suffering Until Suffrage

  • Women's Contributions to War Effort

    • Women entered traditionally male jobs during men’s absences due to war

    • Split within the women’s movement:

    • National Woman's party opposed Wilson, while National American Woman Suffrage Association supported the war as a means to achieve suffrage

  • Suffrage Advances

    • Wilson endorsed women's suffrage in 1917, leading to the eventual passage of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920

XVIII. Making Plowboys into Doughboys

  • Military Mobilization

    • U.S. initially unaware of the scale of deployment needed; by 1917, the draft became indispensable

    • Conscription was met with resistance but ultimately nearly four million men served in the military

XIX. America Helps Hammer the “Hun”

  • American Forces Engage in Combat

    • As the American army joined European forces, their presence shifted the balance of power in favor of the Allies

XX. Wilson Steps Down from Olympus

  • Post-War Leadership Challenges

    • Wilson faced difficulties when attempting to maintain a strong position in post-war negotiations and difficulty in securing Congressional support post-war

XXI. An Idealist Amid the Imperialists

  • Treaty of Versailles

    • Wilson’s idealism was challenged by realities of self-interest displayed by Allies

XXII. Wilson's Battle for Ratification

  • Political Opposition

    • Wilson's steadfastness led to his treaty being ultimately rejected by Congress due to partisan strife and various oppositional factions

XXIII. The “Solemn Referendum” of 1920

  • Election of 1920

    • The presidential campaign turned into a referendum on the League of Nations, reinforcing public reluctance toward it

XXIV. The Betrayal of Great Expectations

  • Long-term Consequences

    • The rejection of the Treaty of Versailles illustrated the conflicts between emerging American isolationism and international involvement