Renaissance, Exploration, and the Commercial Revolution Study Guide
The Italian Renaissance and Cultural "Isms"
The Renaissance occurred between the and centuries, although its origins trace back to the century in Italy.
Individualism - Characterized by a desire for people to have portraits made of themselves. - Example: Raphael’s Portrait of Julius II (Julius II was also a notable patron of Renaissance art). - Focused on bringing out the personality of individuals with "unapologetic uniqueness and singularity." - Belief that individuals possessed significant potential. - Virtu: The concept of excelling at one’s specific craft.
Naturalism - In the Italian Renaissance, naturalism focused on creating anatomically correct figures. - In the Northern Renaissance, it manifested as the display of everyday life and scenes containing rich, minute details.
Classicism - Heavily influenced by Greco-Roman culture. - Incorporated secularism, humanism, and individualism into art, specifically through free-standing figures.
Realism - Placed a heavy emphasis on reality. - Featured the first nudes produced since classical times. - Depicted the human body in a natural and realistic manner.
Secularism - A shift away from religion and a decreasing emphasis on faith as personal wealth increased. - Example: Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper includes secular elements, as the figures in the painting appear distant from or even disapproving of Jesus.
Humanism - Associated with "new learning" and focused on the potential of humans. - Prioritizes humans over divine spirits. - Humanists studied Latin classics to gain insights into human nature. - Leonardo Bruni: Coined the term humanism; viewed it as the revival and study of Latin classics (Greek and Roman philosophy). - Francesco Petrarch: Known as the "Father of Humanism." He studied the Romans and believed he was living in a new intellectual era distinct from the Gothic "Dark Ages." - Pico della Mirandola: Another key humanist figure emphasized in the study of human potential.
Political Philosophy and Machiavelli
Niccolò Machiavelli: Author of The Prince.
Key tenets of Machiavellian thought: - It is better to be feared than loved. - A ruler must maintain a strong army. - One should worry about what "is" rather than what "could be." - Civilians should be armed. - Philosophy on human nature: People are naturally selfish. - Practical advice: A ruler should never take the property or women of his subjects.
Impact of Humanism on Society and Women
Impact on Women: - While some women gained access to education and new opportunities, the majority saw their status decline. - Expected roles for women: Get married, bear children, care for children, and assist fathers or husbands in their work. - Upper-class women particularly lost power as their roles were restricted to the household rather than the political public arena. - Dominant social view: It was considered against nature for a woman to rule.
Baldassare Castiglione: Author of The Courtier. - Defined the characteristics of the ideal gentleman as well-rounded and educated. - This became the standard model for upper-class men (known as the "Universal Man" or "Renaissance Man"). - These standards generally did not apply to women.
Christian Humanism and Northern Reformers
Christian Humanism: Northern humanists merged classical ideas with deep personal spirituality.
Faith in the power of human intellect to achieve moral and institutional reform.
Desiderius Erasmus (Dutch): - Wrote In Praise of Folly. - Believed education is the primary means to reform. - Defined Christianity as an "inner attitude of the heart" rather than external formalism or ceremonies. - Advocated for the education and literacy of everyone and the translation of the Bible into common languages so the ideas of Christ could reach everyone. - Criticized the corruption of the clergy and called for both religious and political reform.
Thomas More (English): - Author of Utopia. - Argued that the key to improving the individual was the reform of social institutions that mold the individual. - Questioned existing societal institutions and their influence on common people.
The Printing Press and Its Consequences
Invented in by Johann Gutenberg, Johann Fust, and Peter Schoffer.
Facilitated the wide distribution of new ideas through efficient mass production of texts.
Bridged the gap between written and oral cultures as ideas were read aloud to illiterate populations.
Encouraged the growth of vernacular literature, which helped foster national cultures.
Artistic Styles and Key Figures
Italian Renaissance Artists: - Michelangelo. - Raphael. - Leonardo da Vinci. - Brunelleschi (noted for the Duomo).
Northern Renaissance Artists: - Jan van Eyck. - Pieter Bruegel. - Albrecht Dürer.
The Emergence of New Monarchs
General Characteristics: - Limiting the power of the feudal aristocracy. - Monarchs established power by forming alliances with the middle class and towns. - Created "Nobles of the Robe" (new nobility). - Towns received royal charters to form local governments (councils and mayors) without noble interference in exchange for paying taxes. - Created efficient, centralized bureaucracies and systems of taxation. - Used committees and councils to track affairs; implemented uniform, written laws. - Maintained state-funded standing armies loyal to the monarch. - Encouraged a sense of national identity with the monarch as the head. - Fostered internal and external trade. - Asserted authority over the clergy and established religious control.
France: - Louis XI (The Spider King): Raised revenue through high taxes and economic activity to improve the army and consolidate land control. - Pragmatic Sanction: The royal council claimed superiority over the papacy and took the power to appoint church officials. - Francis I: Negotiated the Concordat of Bologna with Pope Leo X; the Pope received the first-year salary of bishops and abbots in exchange for the King's right to appoint them.
England: - Henry VII: - Royal Council: Composed of educated middle-class men, excluding the nobility. - Court of Star Chamber: Used Roman law without a jury to deal with aristocratic threats; known for being unfair and ruthless. - Justices of Peace: Acted as local policemen running governments loyal to the King throughout England.
Spain: - Ferdinand and Isabella: - Hermandades: Local police forces used to repress violence and enforce law. - Unified Spain via Catholicism. - Royal Council: Middle-class membership, no nobles. - National Church: Formed an alliance with Pope Alexander VI to appoint bishops. - Reconquista: Used tax-funded national army to remove Muslims from the peninsula. - Inquisition: Targeted Jews; used torture and punishment as a tool for patriotism, loyalty, and propaganda (aided by the printing press).
The Age of Exploration and Discovery ( Century)
Motives: - Economic: Finding gold and overseas routes to Asian spice markets for control. - Mercantilism: Promoting commercial development and colony acquisition to enhance state power. - Religious: Crusades to Christianize non-Europeans; the Jesuits were created to spread religious zeal and the Christian faith.
Technology: - Navigational Tools: Compass, Astrolabe (determines latitude), and the Caravel (a small, wind-powered ship with large cargo holds). - Cartography: Increasingly accurate nautical charts (Prince Henry the Navigator established schools for geography and navigation). - Military: Gunpowder, cannons, and wheel lock muskets provided a military advantage for colonization.
Shift in Trade: Maritime trade moved from the Mediterranean to an Atlantic economy.
Global Expansion and Consequences
Colonal Timeline: - Century: Portugal established colonies in Africa, South America, and Asia. Spain colonized the Caribbean and the Americas. - Century: France moved into the interior of North America (fur and fish trade). England established colonies on the North American east coast. The Dutch established global trading outposts.
Consequences for Europeans: - Improved diets and greater wealth. - Creation of global empires.
Consequences for Non-Europeans: - Approximately of native populations died due to disease. - About million people either died or were forced into slavery.
Columbian Exchange: - The global diffusion of plants, animals, and diseases between Europe and the Americas.
The Commercial Revolution ( to Centuries)
Economic Changes: - Development of global trade networks (Atlantic economy). - Rise of new economic elites: The Medici family, merchants, bankers, and Nobles of the Robe. - Population returned to pre-plague levels, leading to urbanization and the growth of Atlantic port cities.
Banking Innovations: - Double-entry bookkeeping. - Modern banks (e.g., Bank of Amsterdam). - Joint-stock companies.
Agricultural Revolution ( Century): - Enclosure movement, crop rotation, and cash crops (sugar, tobacco). - New technology like the seed drill.
Price Revolution: - Rising prices of goods due to the influx of gold and silver and population growth. - Caused food shortages for the poor; rural workers delayed marriage and childbearing, slowing population increases.
Diplomacy: Treaty of Tordesillas used the Catholic Church to resolve land disputes between Spain and Portugal via a line of demarcation (Spain got west, Portugal got east).
Slavery and Economic Systems
The Slave Trade: - Driven by mercantilism and capitalism and the death of of indigenous people. - Plantation economy produced high-profit cash crops (sugar, tobacco). - Middle Passage: The journey of captured slaves across the Atlantic to be sold at auctions.
Spain’s Golden Age ( Century): - Wealth derived from New World metals. - Declined in the century due to the Price Revolution. - Spanish colonization was easier because Native Americans were more vulnerable to disease than people in Asia or Africa, who resisted the Portuguese.
Mercantilism: - High government regulation to promote state power. - Focused on bullionism, favorable balance of trade, naval power, and colonial territories.
Capitalist/Free Market: - Minimal government interference; prices determined by supply and demand (exemplified by the Dutch Republic).