Zapatista Autonomy and Stateless Participatory Democracy by Al Raven

Participatory democracy currently encompasses a diverse array of formats, audiences, framing strategies, and scales.
The origins of participatory democracy are rooted in systemic criticisms of representative democracy, specifically targeting:
- The dissociation between the representatives (leaders) and the represented (citizens).
- The excessive centralisation of power.
- The systematic disempowerment of citizens.
According to Hatzfeld ( $2011$ , page $53$ ), these factors necessitate a shift toward participatory models.
The development of participation has historically branched into two distinct issues:
- Political Tool for Leaders: Designed to correct and complement representation. Governments encourage participation by actors who are traditionally excluded from public policy-making.
- Tool for Political Struggle: Designed to challenge the social and political system. This understands participatory democracy as a means to produce popular counter-power.
Hatzfeld warns that thinking of participation only through mechanisms granted and designed for the needs of public decision-makers is a "dead end" ( $2011$ , page $27$ ).

Independent attempts at participation occur outside of state frameworks, advocating for new political practices based on self-government.
Self-Governing Political Systems: Based on the principle of the "capacity of all to govern themselves" (Baschet $2021$ , page $11$ ). In this model, all citizens participate in policy-making and decision-making.
Self-Management: A concept originating from the labour movement tradition. It encourages workers to work autonomously to establish socialism (Baschet $2021$ , page $54$ ).
Radical Transformation: Self-management aims at a thorough change in societal behaviors and mindsets, creating alternative organizational models to capitalism regarding work, consumption, and knowledge (Baschet $2021$ , page $55$ ).

While related to self-management, the Zapatistas use the specific term "autonomy" to describe their organisation.
Definition of Autonomy: According to Jérôme Baschet ( $2019$ , page $323$ ), Zapatista autonomy synthesises two qualities:
- The implementation of self-government modalities that are entirely dissociated from the institutions of the Mexican state.
- The reinvention of forms of life rooted in Indigenous tradition that remain unprecedented and, as much as possible, escape capitalist determinations.
Critique of the State: Autonomy rejects centralised power and political organisations that depend on it. It involves a relocalisation of politics from the national scale to the local scale.
Historical Context: Autonomy emerged as a superior response to the needs of Indigenous populations following the failure of the San Andrés Accords to recognise their rights (Melenotte $2010$ ).
Resistance and De Facto Autonomy: In $2003$ , the Zapatistas declared de facto autonomy over their territories. This is viewed primarily as a form of resistance to state oppression.
Quote from Maestra Eloisa (at the Escuelita): "They are afraid that we will discover that we can govern ourselves." This discovery proves that ordinary people are capable of self-governance, demonstrating the "harmful uselessness" of self-proclaimed experts and those in high-level power (Baschet $2019$ , page $372$ ).

Zapatista autonomy draws on a long popular tradition of community organisation, focusing on:
- Collective exercise of power.
- Consensus-building.
- The authority of the community prevails over that of the individual (Baschet $2021$ ).
Transformations in Tradition: These traditional structures are evolving to address historical exclusions.
- Youth and women are being integrated into community assemblies.
- Social structures and symbolic roles for women have been prioritised since the early days of the Zapatista revolution (Mora $2017$ ).
Lekil Kuxlejal: A concept signifying a dignified collective life associated with a specific territory (Mora $2017$ , page $12$ ).
Implementation Fields: Autonomy is applied daily in education, health, justice, and politics (Baschet $2021$ ).
Territorial Identity: The relationship to the land allows for a territorialised collective identity without requiring legal structures for implementation (Guimont Marceau $2010$ ).

The Zapatista system is characterised as federal and non-dissociative, utilising the principle of "mandar obedeciendo" (leading by obeying).
Three Interacting Levels of the Federal System:
- 1. The Communities: The grassroots level.
- 2. The Communes (MAREZ): Known as Municipios Autónomos Rebeldes Zapatistas (Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities), these bring several communities together.
- 3. The Caracoles: Responsible for the regional coordination of the communes.
Structure and Rotation:
- Each level features assemblies and authorities elected for terms of $2$ or $3$ years.
- The frequency of rotation for autonomous councils varies across the $5$ regions.
- Decision-making requires constant consultation; there are regular back-and-forth communications between municipal councils, regional assemblies, and the base communities (Baschet $2021$ ).
Additional Bodies: Functional elements include the Supervisory Commission of each Zone and the CCRI (EZLN's Clandestine Indigenous Revolutionary Committee).

Despecialisation of Politics: By involving ordinary people, the Zapatistas avoid the separation of governors and governed inherent to the State.
- No self-proclamation or self-representation in elections.
- No political specialists.
- Mandates are directly provided by the community to individuals for specific political tasks.
External and Internal Participation:
- Internal: Citizen participation in community life.
- External: The community's interaction with broader political orders, utilizing a "politics of refusal" toward the state while engaging in dialogue with national and international actors (Mora $2017$ ; Dumoulin $2010$ ).
Evolving Practice: Autonomy is not a fixed theoretical system but a practice that adapts to social reality. It is a policy situated in concrete experiences and specific places (Baschet $2019$ , page $378$ ).
The Multiplicity of Worlds: The logic of autonomy seeks to build a world where "there is room for many worlds." This requires:
- Recognizing there is no single way to exit capitalism.
- Mastering the art of listening, translation, and proportionality.
- Coordinating between different worlds while respecting divergences.
Grassroots Control: Society (not the state or parties) must control and sanction leaders. Popular self-determination requires power to be grounded at the grassroots level, ensuring leaders respond to popular interests (Chapdelaine $2010$ ).