Critical Reading and Writing Lecture Flashcards

Distinction Between Fact and Opinion

• Definitions:     * Fact: Statements that can be proven. While no authority is entirely foolproof, information provided by specific reliable sources is considered factual.     * Opinion: Statements that cannot be proven. They are fundamentally based on a person’s thoughts, feelings, and individual understanding.
• Interplay between the two:     * Facts may be used to add credibility to an opinion, but the statement remains an opinion.     * Even if an opinion is widely accepted or popular, that acceptance does not transform it into a fact.
• Reliable Authorities for Facts:     * History books.     * Direct observations.     * Governmental law.     * Proven scientific laws.     * Statistics.     * Mathematics.     * Measurements.
• Types of Opinions:     * Hypothesis Statements: Proposed explanations made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation.     * Theory Statements: Suppositions or a system of ideas intended to explain something.     * Assumptive Statements: Statements based on things that are accepted as true or as certain to happen, without proof.     * Value Statements: Judgments based on a particular set of values or a value system.     * Exaggerated Statements: Representations of something as better or worse than it actually is.
• Examples of Opinion vs. Fact (Comparative Transformation):     * Subject: John F. Kennedy. Fact: He was a President. Opinion: He was an "excellent" President.     * Subject: Human Anatomy. Fact: The adult human body has a specific number of bones. Opinion: "Apparently," the body has more bones than that.     * Subject: Suicide Rates. Fact: Current statistical data on US suicide rates. Opinion: The rate "will decrease soon" or it is "likely."     * Subject: Drinking Age. Fact: The legal drinking age is $21$. Opinion: This is "unfair" or "necessary."

Author’s Purpose and Intent

• Evaluating Passages: Identifying the author's purpose is essential for effectively evaluating a text.
• Acronym for Retention (PIES):     * P – Persuade: The goal is to get the reader to agree with the writer's opinion. This writing is opinionated but may use facts and examples as support. Examples: Commercials, advertisements, and editorials.     * I – Inform: The goal is to enlighten the reader regarding real and factual subjects. Facts are used to teach rather than persuade, and few opinions are expressed. Examples: Cookbooks, textbooks, and historical accounts.     * E – Entertain: The goal is to tell a story or describe characters, places, or events (which can be real or imaginary). Examples: Plays, poems, stories, jokes, and comic strips.     * S – Share Feelings: The goal is to tell the reader what the author is thinking or feeling. Examples: Journals, diaries, and letters.
• Tone and Headlines:     * A title often sets the tone of a passage.     * Example 1: "Life found on Mars. Scientists discover new forms of life that once lived on Mars." Purpose: Inform.     * Example 2: "The Secret of the Mysterious Pendant." Purpose: Entertain.     * Example 3: "A Laugh a Minute." Purpose: Entertain.
• Determining Purpose via Ratio:     * If a passage contains more facts than opinions, it is likely an Informative passage.     * If a passage contains more opinions than facts, it is likely a Persuasive or Entertaining passage.
• Contextual Example (Sponge Divers):     * "In Tarpon Springs, Florida there are people who work underwater. These people are called sponge divers. The kind of treasure they look for is called sponges. Sponge diving is not an easy job. The diver has to breathe under the water, and be careful of extreme water pressure."     * The purpose of this text is to Inform.

Understanding Bias

• Definition: Bias occurs when an individual is partial to one side over another; it involves unfair partiality or favoritism.
• General Example: Preferring Coke over Pepsi. If a person chooses to drink water rather than a Pepsi because Coke is unavailable, they are demonstrating a bias toward Coke.
• Case Study: Construction at South Davie Schools:     * Neutral Statement: "Construction is going great this fall at South Davie Schools!"     * Group Biases/Perspectives:         * Administration: Focused on deadlines and public relations. Expresses stress over the delay from September to October and how to explain this to parents and staff.         * Teachers: Focused on classroom environment and utility. Express discomfort regarding no air conditioning, lack of access to files, and the room being used as a lunchroom by workers ("PEEYOOO!").         * Parents: Focused on safety and logistics. Express concern for "Johnny and Susie," the safety of falling objects, the provision of lunch, and the impact of a later school start on home management.         * Students: Focused on amenities and social benefits. Express disappointment over the lack of a new lunchroom, air-conditioned theater, and technology, but excitement over potential "open lunch."
• Sports Example: A coach believing referees are biased if they make bad calls against their team but not the opponent in similar play situations.

Graphic Representations and Reading Illustrations

• Circle Graph (Pie Chart): Displays data using a circle divided into sectors. Each sector represents a percentage (%) of a whole or a single group.
• Bar Graph: Displays data using bars of equal width on a grid. Bars can be vertical or horizontal and are used primarily for comparisons.
• Pictograph: Uses pictures and symbols to display data. A key is provided to indicate what each picture or symbol represents numerically.
• Broken Line Graph: Shows data points joined by line segments to illustrate trends over time (e.g., Magazine Sales over a week).
• Continuous Line Graph: Points on the line between plotted points also have meaning. This often includes a "best fit" line. The independent variable is placed on the $X$ axis and the dependent variable is placed on the $Y$ axis.
• Scatter Plots: A graph of data as a set of points. Types include:     * High Positive Correlation.     * No Correlation.

Text Features and Their Functions

• Title: Located on the front cover or beginning of a chapter; indicates the topic/main idea of the entire text.
• Heading/Subheading: Secondary headings that divide sections; indicate the main idea of a specific section.
• Bold Print: Dark, thick print used to signal important vocabulary or phrases integral to understanding.
• Italics: Font slanted to the right; used for proper nouns, important vocabulary, or to indicate emphasis.
• Caption: Text near a graphic (picture, map, diagram) that explains its content.
• Pronunciation Guide: Phonetic representation of a word, often in parentheses, following a new or unusual word (e.g., "hirudin (hi-ROO-din)").
• Bullets: Indented list text aligned with dots or symbols; summarizes or lists information.
• Sidebar: Additional text in a box (often shaded) located at the sides, top, or bottom; provides extra details/facts related to the main text.
• Photograph: Camera-taken picture helping the reader visualize real events or objects.
• Drawing: Hand-created sketch helping the reader understand specific concepts.
• Map: Aerial-view picture showing geographic locations and trends (e.g., population).
• Chart/Table: Information organized into columns and rows with headings for easy comparison.
• Timeline: Events listed in linear format to show the order and relative timing of occurrences.
• Table of Contents: Located at the beginning; lists key topics and page numbers in order.
• Index: Located at the back; alphabetical list of specific topics, names, and terms with page numbers.
• Glossary: Located at the back; alphabetical list of important words and their definitions.
• Footnote: Provides additional context or citations at the bottom of a page.

The Writing Process

• Purpose of the Process: Helps organize thoughts, avoid frustration and procrastination, and ensures time is used efficiently.
• Stages of Writing:     1. Invention: Coming up with a topic.         * Brainstorming: Writing down ideas to create a wide range of topics.         * Listing: Creating a literal list of interests (e.g., NBA salary caps, Obesity in the USA, Immigration).         * Clustering: Mapping out ideas visually to see connections (e.g., connecting "First Amendment" to "Internet Censorship").     2. Collection: Gathering ideas, locating and evaluating research, and conducting interviews.     3. Organization: Putting information into an Outline.         * I. Introduction: Grab attention and state thesis.         * II. Body: Build points, develop ideas, and support the main claim.         * III. Conclusion: Reemphasize the main idea.     4. Drafting: Practical application of ideas.         * Tips: Ample time, comfortable environment, avoiding distractions, and taking breaks.     5. Revising: Reviewing "higher-order concerns."         * Focus: Clear communication of ideas, organization, paragraph structure, and strength of intro/conclusion.     6. Proofreading: Reviewing "lower-order concerns."         * Focus: Spelling, punctuation, sentence structure, and documentation style.         * Tips: Read aloud slowly, read backward, or exchange papers with a friend. Note: Spell check and grammar checks are not infallible.

Essay Formation and Thesis Statements

• The Thesis Statement:     * Definition: A sentence that serves as the guide for the essay and directly answers the task/question. It expresses the main idea.     * Metaphor: An essay without a thesis is like a car without a driver.     * Characteristics:         1. Addresses the prompt clearly.         2. Makes a claim or presents an argument.         3. Must be arguable (not a simple fact).         4. Located in the first paragraph.
• Examples of Thesis Statements:     * Analytical: "An analysis of the college admission process reveals one challenge facing counselors: accepting students with high test scores or students with strong extracurricular backgrounds."     * Expository (Explanatory): "The life of the typical college student is characterized by time spent studying, attending class, and socializing with peers."
• The "Easy" Essay Plan (3-3-3 Rule):     * Start with a main topic sentence.     * Provide three reasons why the topic sentence is true.     * Provide three examples for each of those reasons (Show, don't tell).
• Paragraph Structure:     * Standard length: $5$ to $8$ sentences.     * Structure: Topic Sentence, Three Examples, Concluding Sentence.
• Five-Paragraph Essay Model:     * Paragraph 1 (Introduction): Intro sentence, Subtopic 1, Subtopic 2, Subtopic 3, and a Conclusion restating the intro.     * Paragraph 2 (Example #1): Topic sentence restating Subtopic 1, three sentences of proof, and a concluding sentence.     * Paragraph 3 (Example #2): Topic sentence restating Subtopic 2, three sentences of proof, and a concluding sentence.     * Paragraph 4 (Example #3): Topic sentence restating Subtopic 3, three sentences of proof, and a concluding sentence.     * Paragraph 5 (Conclusion): Restates the Introduction and summarizes the subtopics.

Deep Revision and Documentation

• Deep Revision ("Fry the Big Fish First"):     * Goes beyond simple editing for grammar or word choice.     * Involves the whole essay; addresses meaning, logic, structure, and concrete support.     * Requires openness to rethinking or rewriting the entire paper if a better idea is discovered.     * Requires cutting out sections that do not work.
• MLA Documentation (Author-Page Style):     * In-text citations must include the Author's last name and page number.     * Citing within the sentence: "Wordsworth stated that Romantic poetry was marked by a 'spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings' ($263$)."     * Citing at the end: "Romantic poetry is characterized by the 'spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings' (Wordsworth $263$)."     * Works Cited Page Entry Example:         * Wordsworth, William. Lyrical Ballads. London: Oxford U.P., $1967$. Print.

Primary and Secondary Sources

• Primary Sources:     * Definition: Original records from the past created by people involved in the event, who witnessed it, or knew the involved parties. They can also be artifacts.     * Pros/Cons: Give a sense of what people alive at the time thought; however, they reflect only one point of view and may contain bias.     * Examples: Books/magazines/newspapers from the era, diaries, journals, personal records, paintings, sculpture, photographs, film, maps, oral histories (myths/legends), songs, poems, and artifacts (tools, ornaments).
• Secondary Sources:     * Definition: Sources made at a later time; written information by historians or others after an event has occurred.     * Pros/Cons: Cannot reflect exact feelings of people at the time, but can provide a more "fair" account by including multiple perspectives or data unavailable at the time.     * Examples: Textbooks, biographies, histories, newspaper reports by those NOT present, and charts/graphs/images created after the period.

Inferences, Conclusions, and Predictions

• Making Inferences: Making educated guesses based on clues the writer provides.     * Supported Inferences: Based directly on evidence; explicitly stated.     * Unsupported Inferences: Logical conclusions not supported by facts; involves misunderstanding or ignoring facts.
• Drawing Conclusions: Formed by piecing together multiple inferences to make a judgment based on details and personal knowledge.
• Making Predictions: Habit of guessing what will happen next based on writer's clues.
• Practice Scenarios:     * Scenario 1 (Surfing): Clues like "board and water," "balance," "waves," and "rider's feet" allow the reader to infer the topic is surfing.     * Scenario 2 (Maria's Test): Maria studied all week, spent three hours a night on review, and couldn't sleep. Logical Conclusion: Maria is nervous about her algebra test.     * Scenario 3 (Want Ad): "Flower Power," "experience selling," "Uniform provided," "Medical City Dallas Hospital." Conclusion: The person will likely work as a salesperson (selling flowers in a hospital shop).     * Scenario 4 (Sleep): Insomniacs shift posture more than others. Conclusion: Insomniacs shift positions more often than regular sleepers.     * Scenario 5 (Susan and Dogs): Susan walks on the other side of the street even if dogs are locked in. Support for Fear: That specific detail about walking on the other side.     * Scenario 6 (Fran the Worrier): Fran has a new job. Prediction: She will worry about whether she would do well at her job.

Themes and Universal Themes

• Theme: The underlying meaning of literature; an observation about life, a moral, or a teaching. Themes are never stated explicitly; they must be determined through characters and action.
• Specific Examples:     * Beauty and the Beast: Look beyond surface beauty for what is inside the heart.     * Aladdin: Love is earned from the heart, not through money.
• Universal Themes: These relate to everyone’s experiences or dreams, adding timelessness to a piece.
• Abbreviated A–Z list of Universal Themes:     * Abuse of power, Beating the odds, Coming of age, Courage, Faith, Family, Fate, Fear of failure, Freedom, Friendship, Greed, Heritage, Honesty, Innocence, Justice, Love, Loyalty, Nature, Parent-child relationships, Peer pressure, Prejudice, Revenge, Secrecy, Survival, War, Winners and losers.
• Scrooge and The Grinch Connection: Both the Grinch (How the Grinch Stole Christmas) and Ebenezer Scrooge (A Christmas Carol) share the universal theme of an individual overcoming selfishness and greed.