terms to know: ap psychology

🧠 Unit 1: Methods, Approaches, and History of Psychology

Key Concepts:

  • Structuralism- an early school of psychology that sought to understand the structure of the mind by analyzing its components, primarily through introspection.

  • Functionalism- a school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function, emphasizing the purposes they serve in adapting to the environment.

  • Behaviorism- a theoretical perspective in psychology that emphasizes the role of observable behaviors and the effects of the environment on behavior, often excluding mental processes from scientific inquiry.

  • Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic approach- a perspective that emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences on behavior, highlighting the significance of internal conflicts and emotional struggles.

  • Humanistic approach- a psychological perspective that emphasizes personal growth, self-actualization, and the concept of free will, focusing on the individual's potential and the importance of human values and empathy.

  • Biological approach- a perspective in psychology that focuses on the physiological, genetic, and neurobiological factors that influence behavior, often examining how brain structures and chemical processes contribute to mental processes and actions.

  • Cognitive approach- a psychological perspective that explores how individuals perceive, think, and remember information, emphasizing the role of mental processes in understanding behavior and experiences.

  • Evolutionary approach- a theoretical perspective in psychology that examines how evolutionary principles such as natural selection influence human behavior, emphasizing the adaptive traits that have developed over time to enhance survival and reproduction.

  • Sociocultural approach- a perspective in psychology that examines how societal and cultural factors, including social norms, values, and customs, shape individuals' behaviors, thoughts, and emotions, highlighting the importance of context in understanding psychological phenomena.

  • Biopsychosocial model- a comprehensive approach that integrates biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding human behavior and mental health, recognizing that these dimensions interact to influence overall well-being.

Research Methods & Statistics:

  • Theory vs. Hypothesis-

  • Operational definition- a specific explanation of an abstract concept that allows it to be measured or tested, providing clarity and precision in research.

  • Independent / Dependent variable

  • Experimental vs. correlational studies

  • Random assignment / Random sampling

  • Control group / Experimental group

  • Confounding variable

  • Placebo effect / Double-blind procedure

  • Descriptive statistics (mean, median, mode,

  • standard deviation- a measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values.

  • Inferential statistics- a branch of statistics that allows researchers to make generalizations or inferences about a population based on a sample of data.

  • Statistical significance (p-value)

  • Ethics in research (APA guidelines, informed consent, debriefing)

🧠 Unit 2: Biological Bases of Behavior

Key Concepts:

  • Neuron structure (dendrites, axon, synapse, myelin sheath)

  • Action potential

  • Neurotransmitters (dopamine, serotonin, GABA, etc.)

  • Nervous system (CNS, PNS, autonomic, somatic)

  • Sympathetic vs. parasympathetic nervous systems

  • Brain parts: brainstem, thalamus, cerebellum, limbic system (amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus), cerebral cortex

  • Lobes of the brain (frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal)

  • Motor cortex / Somatosensory cortex

  • Broca’s area / Wernicke’s area

  • Split-brain research / Corpus callosum

  • Endocrine system / Hormones

  • Brain imaging

  • EEG- Electroencephalogram; a test that detects electrical activity in the brain, often used to diagnose conditions such as epilepsy or sleep disorders.

  • MRI- Magnetic Resonance Imaging; a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of the organs and tissues within the body, particularly useful for brain structure analysis.

  • fMRI- Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging; a specialized MRI technique that measures and maps brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow, allowing researchers to observe brain function in real-time.

  • PET- Positron Emission Tomography; an imaging test that uses a small amount of radioactive material to visualize how tissues and organs are functioning, commonly used to diagnose cancer and assess brain activity.

  • Plasticity- the brain's ability to change and adapt as a result of experience, including the reorganization of neural pathways and the formation of new connections in response to learning and injury.

  • Genotype / Phenotype

  • Heritability / Twin studies

🧠 Unit 3: Sensation, Perception, Learning, and Cognition

Sensation & Perception:

  • Absolute threshold

  • Difference threshold / Weber’s Law

  • Signal detection theory

  • Sensory adaptation

  • Transduction

  • Retina / Rods / Cones / Optic nerve

  • Cochlea / Auditory nerve

  • Gate-control theory (pain)

  • Vestibular / Kinesthetic sense

  • Gestalt principles

  • Depth perception (monocular vs. binocular cues)

  • Perceptual constancy

Learning:

  • Classical conditioning (UCS, UCR, CS, CR)

  • Operant conditioning (positive/negative reinforcement & punishment)

  • Reinforcement schedules (fixed/variable, ratio/interval)

  • Shaping

  • Extinction / Spontaneous recovery

  • Observational learning / Modeling

  • Latent learning

  • Learned helplessness

Cognition:

  • Encoding / Storage / Retrieval

  • Sensory / Short-term / Long-term memory

  • Working memory

  • Explicit vs. Implicit memory

  • Recall / Recognition / Relearning

  • Proactive / Retroactive interference

  • Misinformation effect / Source amnesia

  • Algorithms / Heuristics

  • Availability / Representativeness heuristic

  • Confirmation bias

  • Overconfidence / Belief perseverance

  • Framing

  • Language development (Chomsky, critical period)

🧠 Unit 4: Development, Motivation, Emotion, and Personality

Development:

  • Nature vs. nurture

  • Teratogens

  • Piaget’s cognitive stages

  • Erikson’s psychosocial stages

  • Attachment styles (secure, insecure)

  • Parenting styles

  • Kohlberg’s moral development

Motivation & Emotion:

  • Drive-reduction theory

  • Arousal theory

  • Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

  • Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation

  • James-Lange / Cannon-Bard / Schachter-Singer (two-factor) theories

  • Facial feedback hypothesis

  • Stress / General adaptation syndrome (GAS)

Personality:

  • Id / Ego / Superego

  • Defense mechanisms (repression, projection, denial, etc.)

  • Trait theory (Big Five: OCEAN)

  • Social-cognitive theory (Bandura, self-efficacy)

  • Humanistic theory (Rogers, unconditional positive regard)

  • Locus of control (internal/external)

  • Projective tests / Personality inventories

🧠 Unit 5: Clinical and Social Psychology

Clinical Psychology:

  • DSM-5

  • Anxiety disorders (GAD, panic, phobias, OCD, PTSD)

  • Depressive and bipolar disorders

  • Schizophrenia (positive/negative symptoms)

  • Dissociative identity disorder

  • Personality disorders (antisocial, borderline, etc.)

  • Psychoanalysis / Free association

  • Humanistic therapy (client-centered)

  • Cognitive therapy (Beck, Ellis)

  • CBT (Cognitive-behavioral therapy)

  • Exposure therapy / Systematic desensitization

  • Biomedical therapy (drugs: antidepressants, antipsychotics, etc.)

  • ECT / rTMS

Social Psychology:

  • Fundamental attribution error

  • Cognitive dissonance

  • Conformity (Asch)

  • Obedience (Milgram)

  • Social facilitation / Social loafing

  • Group polarization / Groupthink

  • Bystander effect / Diffusion of responsibility

  • Prejudice / Discrimination / Stereotypes

  • In-group / Out-group bias

  • Just-world phenomenon

  • Self-fulfilling prophecy

  • Mere exposure effect