Biological Molecules

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    Biological Molecules Notes

    Summary of Events

    • Definition: Biological molecules are essential compounds that are crucial for life, including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

    • Carbohydrates: Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; serve as energy sources and structural components (e.g., glucose, starch, cellulose).

    • Proteins: Made of amino acids; perform a wide range of functions including catalyzing reactions (enzymes), signaling, and structural roles (e.g., hemoglobin, antibodies).

    • Lipids: Hydrophobic molecules that include fats, oils, and steroids; important for energy storage, membrane structure, and signaling (e.g., phospholipids, cholesterol).

    • Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA; responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information, involved in protein synthesis.

    Main Themes

    • Structure and Function: The structure of biological molecules directly influences their function in living organisms.

    • Energy Transformation: Biological molecules play a key role in energy storage and transfer within cells.

    • Genetic Information: Nucleic acids are central to heredity and the regulation of cellular activities.

    Motifs

    • Interconnectedness: Different biological molecules interact and depend on each other for various life processes.

    • Diversity of Functions: Each type of biological molecule has unique properties that allow it to perform specific roles in biological systems.

    • Evolutionary Adaptation: Variations in biological molecules contribute to the adaptability and evolution of organisms.

    Key Term

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    Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates composed of long chains of monosaccharide units. They serve various functions, including:

    • Energy Storage: Starch (in plants) and glycogen (in animals).

    • Structural Support: Cellulose (in plant cell walls) and chitin (in fungal cell walls and exoskeletons of arthropods).

    • Examples: Starch, glycogen, cellulose, and dextran.

    Polysaccharides are typically not sweet and are insoluble in water

    Fats, also known as lipids, are a group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. They serve several important functions in the body, including:

    1. Energy Storage: Fats provide a concentrated source of energy, yielding 9 calories per gram.

    2. Cell Structure: They are essential components of cell membranes.

    3. Insulation and Protection: Fats help insulate the body and protect vital organs.

    4. Nutrient Absorption: They aid in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K).

    Fats can be classified into saturated, unsaturated, and trans fats, each having different health implications.

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    • Monomers and Polymers: Basic building blocks (monomers) combine to form larger structures (polymers).

    • Enzymatic Activity: Proteins that act as catalysts to speed up biochemical reactions.

    • Hydrophilic vs. Hydrophobic: Describes the affinity of molecules for water, influencing their behavior in biological systems.

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    Carbohydrates 

  • Includes sugars and polymers (large molecules made by stringing together smaller molecules) of sugars 

  • Hydrophilic (water-loving) 

  • Primary source of energy in animals 

  • Glucose 

  • Serve as a building material in plants 

  • Make sugar, then burn it 

  • Monosaccharides 

  • Used for cellular respiration 

  • The way we harvest energy 

  • a.k.a. simple sugars 

  • Monomers (small molecule subunit) of sugars 

  • Glucose is one great example (e.g., component of honey) 

  • Main fuel source for “cellular work” 

  • Disaccharides 

  • a.k.a. a double sugar 

  • Constructed via two monosaccharides 

  • An example is lactose (glucose + galactose) 

  • Lactose intolerance means you don't make the enzyme lactase 

  • Most common example: sucrose (table sugar) (glucose + fructose) 

  • Arteries get oxygenated blood back to the organs 

  • Capillaries gets whatever is in the blood to the desired organ 

  • High Fructose Corn Syrup 

  • a.k.a. “corn sugar” 

  • A disaccharide made commercially by using an enzyme that converts natural glucose in corn syrup to a much sweeter fructose 

  • Clear and vicious substance that is cheaper and sweeter than table sugar 

  • Excessive consumption can lead to type two diabetes, obesity and hypertension 

  • The body doesn't know what to do with it so it stores it as adipose tissue  

  • Used in many soda beverages 

  • Processed by the liver, which causes a “fat production factory” 

  • Research is still underway 

  • Polysaccharides 

  • Complex carbohydrates 

  • Consist of long chains of sugars 

  • Starch (long strains of glucose) serves as a “carbohydrate storage tank” for plants 

  • Humans store excessive glucose count as glycogen in muscle and liver cells (broken down when energy is required) 

  • Starch > Glycogen > energy (carb loading) 

  • The problem = unused glycogen is stored as fat (long-term energy storage) 

  • Plants have cellulose (polymer of glucose) 

  • Lipids 

  • Hydrophobic (water fearing) 

  • “oil and water” 

  • Include fats and steroids 

  • Useful yet harmful  

  • HDL 

  • High density lipoproteins 

  • Lowers bad cholesterol in your body 

  • Get it from eating fruits and vegetables 

  • Fats 

  • A large lipid molecule made from glycerol (alcohol) and three fatty acids 

  • Energy storage 

  • Example: triglyceride 

  • Determines what lipids your body naturally produces 

  • Fat is stored in adipose tissues (swell and shrink) (cushions and insulates). 

  • Dogs burn fat very easily because they have “brown fat”, humans have “yellow fat” 

  • Atherosclerosis 

  • Through bad genetics, diet, and exercise its very common later in life 

  • High lipid content in your bloodstream and it begins clogging your walls, the immune system thinks it’s a foreign invader and capsulates it off. This makes the blockage even bigger 

  • Steroids 

  • Consist of a carbon skeleton with four fused rings 

  • An example of a common steroid is cholesterol (key component of the plasma membrane) 

  • Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) = bad 

 

 

 

  • Proteins  

  • A biological polymer constructed from hundreds to thousands of amino acids 

  • Instrumental in most cellular activity 

  • The human body contains tens of thousands of different kinds of proteins 

  • Major types of proteins 

  • Structural proteins provide supports, forms hair ligaments and horns 

  • Storage proteins provide amino acids for growth. Seeds and eggs are rich in storage proteins.  

  • Contractile proteins help movement. Enables muscles to contract 

  • Transport proteins help transport substances. The protein hemoglobin within red blood cells transports oxygen 

  • Enzymes help chemical reactions. Some cleaning products use enzymes to help break down molecules  

  • Prion Disease: Mad Cow Disease 

  • Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) 

  • A progressive neurological disorder of cattle that results from infection by an unusual transmissible agent called a prion 

  • The normal prion protein changes into a pathogenic form that then damages the central nervous system of cattle  

 

  • Nucleic Acids 

  • Macromolecules that store information 

  • Nucleotide is a structure that binds to another nucleotide via a hydrogen bond 

 

“DNA Uses” 

  • Paternity tests 

  • Arrests 

  • Detection of disease 

  • Gene therapy  

Carbohydrates 

  • Composed of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen Atoms 

  • Functions 

  • Cellular fuel 

  • Structural components of cell 

  • Cell identifiers 

  • Monosaccharides 

  • Simple sugars 

  • Galactose 

  • Glucose 

  • Fructose 

  • Monomers (building blocks) 

  • Disaccharides 

  • Two monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkage 

  • Dehydration synthesis 

  • Glucose and fructose are structural isomers 

  • Polysaccharides 

  • Polymers containing 100’s to 1,000’s of monosaccharides 

  • Structure and function determined by sugar and positions of glycosidic linkages 

  • Energy storage 

  • Starch and glycogen 

  • Structural  

  • Cellulose, Peptidoglycans, Chitin 

  • Difficult to digest because of the arrangement of the bonds 

  • It's hard to break those bonds unless you have special enzymes