Exhaustive Study Notes on the Eisenhower Years and Civil Rights Movement in the 1950s

The decade is often viewed nostalgically as the "happy days," marked by prosperity and the rise of rock-and-roll music.
This portrayal is somewhat accurate, but it oversimplifies a decade fraught with conflicts and challenges.
- Key Issues:
- Korean War's onset.
- McCarthyism's political atmosphere.
- Civil Rights Movement led by figures such as Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr.
- Escalating Cold War tensions and the threat of nuclear war.

Dwight D. Eisenhower, often called "Ike," became a symbol of the 1950s, akin to Franklin Roosevelt's role in the 1930s.
The campaign slogan "I Like Ike" reflected his appeal among middle-class Americans.

In 1952, the public sought relief from the Korean War and political scandals.
- Republican Party:
- Candidates:
  - Senator Robert Taft (Old Guard) vs. General Eisenhower.
  - Eisenhower secured the nomination.
  - Richard Nixon selected as running mate for balance, known for anti-Communist sentiments.
- Democratic Party:
- Nominated Adlai Stevenson, known for his eloquence and approach to confronting McCarthyism.
Campaign Highlights:
- Eisenhower's integrity contrasted with Nixon's scandal involving misused campaign funds.
- Nixon's "Checkers speech" successfully made a personal appeal to the public.
- Eisenhower's promise to end the Korean War helped secure victory, winning 55% of the popular vote and 442 electoral votes against Stevenson’s 89.

Eisenhower's leadership style emphasized delegation and filled his cabinet with corporate leaders, creating a businesslike government.
Criticism arose about his focus on leisure activities like golf and fishing.
Modern Republicanism:
- A fiscal conservative prioritizing a balanced budget post-deficit spending:
- Extended welfare programs, supported most New Deal policies.
- Achievements included extending Social Security, raising minimum wages, and creating the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW).
- Infrastructure Legacy:
- 1956 Highway Act authorized 42,000 miles of interstate highway construction, revolutionizing transportation and suburban growth.
Economic Overview:
- Period marked by low inflation (averaging 1.5%) and economic prosperity, with per capita disposable income tripled from 1945 to 1960.
- Federal budget trends showed deficits but improved relative to national wealth.

Eisenhower's health (heart attack) raised concerns as he ran for reelection.
Despite health doubts, he was re-nominated amid continued prosperity and achieved victory over Stevenson, though Democrats maintained control of Congress.

Key focus of Eisenhower's presidency was on foreign policy, particularly the Cold War.
John Foster Dulles as Secretary of State:
- Advocated for a new aggressive foreign policy, termed "brinkmanship," which proposed that nuclear superiorities could foster detente.
Massive Retaliation:
- Emphasis on nuclear capabilities and less on conventional forces. Developed the hydrogen bomb in 1953.
Decolonization:
- After WWII, numerous colonies in Africa and Asia gained independence, creating new challenges for U.S. foreign policy.

Use of CIA for covert operations increased, significant actions included:
- Overthrowing Iran's government in 1953, leading to the reinstatement of the shah.
- Involvement in Guatemala to protect U.S. business interests, supporting dictators over democratic regimes.

Korean Armistice: 1953 agreement ended combat, maintaining division at the 38th parallel; no formal peace treaty was signed.
Indochina Conflict:
- French struggles against Vietnamese independence led to involvement from the U.S., which did not send troops despite requests post-Dien Bien Phu defeat.
Division of Vietnam:
- Temporarily split at the 17th parallel; South Vietnam developed under Ngo Dinh Diem.
- Domino Theory: Eisenhower justified military and economic support to South Vietnam, fearing the spread of communism throughout Southeast Asia.
- Establishment of SEATO in 1954 involving multiple nations committing to mutual defense in Southeast Asia.

U.S. Foreign Policy Dilemma:
- Balancing support for Israel while maintaining ties with Arab states, amidst increasing Soviet influence.
Suez Crisis:
- Nasser's nationalization led to invasion by Britain, France, and Israel; Eisenhower condemned the invasion and demanded withdrawal, mark an increase in U.S. influence in the region.
Eisenhower Doctrine:
- Pledged aid to any Middle Eastern country threatened by communism.

Relations fluctuated from tension to cooperation; significant events included:
- Spirit of Geneva (1955): A summit sought to ease tensions.
- Soviet Influence & Uprisings:
- U.S. response to the Hungarian uprising indicated limits to American intervention.
Sputnik Shock (1957):
- Soviet satellite launches prompted fears regarding U.S. technological leadership and initiated reforms in education.

Second Berlin Crisis:
- Khrushchev's ultimatum regarding Berlin.
U-2 Incident:
- Soviet shooting down of a U.S. spy plane caused a diplomatic fallout and ended the thaw in relations.

Cuba’s shift to communism:
- Fidel Castro's rise and subsequent nationalization of U.S. properties resulted in a breakdown of U.S.-Cuba relations.

Claimed success in curbing communist aggression and initiating a process toward diplomatic thawing.
Military-Industrial Complex:
- In his farewell address, Eisenhower warned against the undue influence of military interests on politics.

Origins of the Movement:
- Jackie Robinson broke the color barrier, President Truman desegregated the military, but segregation laws persisted.

Desegregation efforts escalated, notably with the Supreme Court's Brown v. Board of Education (1954), which ruled segregation unconstitutional.
Resistance in the South:
- Southern lawmakers vowed to resist the ruling, leading to tensions and federal interventions, particularly in Little Rock.

Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955):
- Initiated by Rosa Parks, with leadership from Martin Luther King Jr.; resulted in a Supreme Court ruling against bus segregation.

Formation of groups like the SCLC and SNCC highlighted the emergence of organized nonviolent resistance.