The British Military Regime and the Conquest of New France (1760-1763)

The Capitulation of Montreal 1760

• Historical Context (circa 1760):
  • British forces won the War of Conquest after capturing Quebec in September 1759.
  • In May 1760, a British fleet entered the Saint-Lawrence and advanced toward Montreal, where the remaining French troops had retreated.
• Military Disparity:
  • British Forces: Between $18\,000$ and $20\,000$ soldiers, converging on Montreal from multiple directions.
  • French Forces: Approximately $2\,500$ to $3\,000$ soldiers stationed inside the city walls.
• The Fall of Montreal:
  • Montreal, the second-largest city in New France, was encircled by British troops.
  • It officially capitulated on September 8, 1760.
  • French forces, commanded by the Chevalier de Lvis, were forced to lay down their arms.
  • This event marked the conquest of New France and its transition to British control.
• Key Signatories of the Capitulation:
  • Pierre de Rigaud de Vaudreuil: The Governor General of New France.
  • Jeffery Amherst: Major General of the British Army.

The Oswegatchie Agreement (August 1760)

• Strategic Neutrality: While en route to Montreal, General Amherst convinced several Indigenous groups to break their alliance with the French and declare neutrality in the conflict.
• Anglo-Indigenous Promises: The British generals promised Indigenous groups they would:
  • Retain their hunting rights.
  • Retain their hunting territories.
• The Meeting: The agreement was concluded in August 1760 near Fort de Lvis.

The British Military Regime (1760–1763)

• Nature of the Regime: The Capitulation of Montreal effectively ended the War of Conquest in North America, but the Seven Years' War continued in Europe and elsewhere globally.
• Provisional Government: Major General Jeffery Amherst established a provisional military government to maintain order and administer the conquered colony until the European war concluded.
• Hope of the French: Residents of New France hoped France would win in Europe and secure the liberation of the colony through a peace treaty.
• Administrative Organization: General Amherst abolished the Royal Government of the French Regime but maintained the specific local districts of Quebec, Trois-Rivires, and Montreal.
• District Leadership (Military Governors):
  • Quebec: General James Murray (District population: $30\,211$ inhabitants).
  • Trois-Rivires: Colonel Ralph Burton (District population: $6\,612$ inhabitants).
  • Montreal: General Thomas Gage (District population: $24\,957$ inhabitants).
• Continuity of Local Structures:
  • Amherst maintained the Captains of Militia in their civil functions because they served as vital intermediaries between the Canadian population and the British military administration.
  • Major changes were not made to existing administrative structures; many Canadians in judicial or administrative positions were allowed to keep their posts.

Relations with Indigenous Nations and the Kahnawake Meeting

• Renovating Peace: Following the capitulation, William Johnson (Superintendent of the Department of Indian Affairs) met with various Indigenous chiefs at Kahnawake to renew the terms of the Oswegatchie agreement.
• Indigenous Demands (Statue of the Indians):
  • Prohibition of alcohol sales/gifts by British traders and officers to avoid disputes.
  • Regulation of trade to prevent abuses by British merchants.
  • Authorization for Indigenous groups to trade with both Canada and New York.
  • Recognition of Indigenous possession of the lands where they lived.
• Internal British Conflict over Policy:
  • William Johnson: Favored accepting these demands to consolidate peace.
  • Jeffery Amherst: Opposed the demands, preferring to submit the Indigenous nations rather than treat them as allies.
• Result: An agreement was reached in 1760, but it remained imprecise regarding specific territorial possessions.

Situation of Canadians under the Military Regime

• Mandatory Obligations: Canadians were required to house British soldiers and needed a permit signed by the governor to engage in trade. A governor-issued passport was required for physical travel.
• Preservation of Rights: Despite British possession, the conditions of the Capitulation of Montreal were respected, allowing Canadians to maintain social and cultural traits from the French Regime.
• Legal System under Military Rule:
  • Civil Laws: Concerned land distribution (Seigneurial system), property, inheritance, marriage, divorce, and trade.
  • Criminal Laws: Concerned theft, assault, homicide, fraud, and high treason.

Population Movements and Reconstruction

• Emigration of the French Elite: Amherst allowed residents of French origin to return to France. Approximately $4\,000$ people left, primarily the elite (nobles, military officers, major fur merchants, and administrators like the Governor and Intendant).
• Arrival of the "Montrealers": Starting in 1760, hundreds of English-speaking merchants and adventurers from Great Britain and the Thirteen Colonies arrived to seek fortunes in the fur trade, replacing the departing French merchants.
• Post-War Devastation: The War of Conquest left the colony, specifically the Quebec region, in ruins.
  • Over $500$ houses were burned in Quebec City.
  • Entire villages were razed, with more than $1\,400$ buildings destroyed.
  • Religious and administrative buildings were severely damaged (e.g., the Church of the Rcollets).
• The Reconstruction Effort: Reconstruction was extremely costly and took many years. The British authorities contributed to rebuilding and restarting agriculture to prevent famine amidst shortages of money, tools, and food.

The Treaty of Paris (1763)

• Peace Negotiations: Discussions began in 1761. Two visions existed in the British Parliament:
  • William Pitt (War Minister): Wanted to punish France.
  • John Stuart (Prime Minister): Favored compromise.
• Territorial Concessions: Signed on February 10, 1763, the treaty officially ended the Seven Years' War.
  • France ceded New France to Great Britain but kept the Antilles (French Guiana, Haiti, Dominican Republic) for their profitable plantations.
  • France retained the islands of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon for fishing rights (still French territory today, using the Euro and located $25\,km$ from Newfoundland).
• Economic Impact: Great Britain emerged victorious but heavily indebted, with a debt of $134\,000\,000$ pounds sterling (double its pre-war debt).
• Rights of the Conquered:
  • Canadians could keep their property.
  • Canadians were granted the right to practice the Catholic religion.
  • Those wishing to leave the colony had $18$ months to do so, provided they sold their property to British subjects.

Pontiac's Rebellion (1763–1766)

• Causes of the Uprising: Indigenous nations feared losing their land and being treated as subjects. Tensions grew because:
  • Amherst stopped the diplomatic tradition of giving gifts.
  • Anglo-American colonists settled illegally south of the Great Lakes.
  • Merchants increased trade prices.
  • Amherst restricted the sale of gunpowder and munitions.
• The Coalition: In May 1763, an alliance (coalition) was formed. Pontiac, an Odawa (Outaouais) chief known for his oratory skills, took the lead.
• Military Actions:
  • May 7-9, 1763: Surprise attack and siege of Fort Detroit.
  • The rebellion spread through the Great Lakes, capturing several British forts.
  • Battle of Devil's Hole: Ambuscade by the Senecas resulting in $80$ British deaths and zero Seneca losses.
• British Retaliation and Biological Warfare: In June 1763, General Amherst proposed spreading smallpox among the Indigenous population. On June 24, 1763, blankets infected with smallpox were distributed to Indigenous chiefs.
• End of the Conflict: By late 1763, the movement slowed as warriors returned to hunting grounds for the winter. In 1765, Pontiac renounced the struggle. By 1766, he declared loyalty to the British.
• Pontiac's Death: He was assassinated by a member of the Illinois tribe on April 20, 1769, in Cahokia.

The Department of Indian Affairs

• Origins: Established in 1755 during the War of Conquest to negotiate alliances with Indigenous nations.
• Function: Acted as a diplomatic body to maintain peace between British traders and Indigenous peoples and as an intermediary between the military and Indigenous chiefs when relations were strained.