Can be deduced through thinking, even without real-world experiments.
Known prior to any reference to the physical world or our five senses.
Example: 2+2=4
A posteriori knowledge:
Gained only after sense experience has occurred.
Requires going out into the world and using our five senses to experiment and find out the 'facts'.
Example: The Titanic sinking on April 15, 1912; the composition of water as two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen.
Truth and Knowledge
Truth:
A fact that has been verified.
Lies at the heart of any inquiry.
Knowledge:
Simple data from the outside that passes to our senses.
Must be truthful to gain validity and acceptance.
Theories of Truth
Correspondence Theory
Coherence Theory
Pragmatic Theory
Constructivist Theory
Consensus Theory
CORRESPONDENCE THEORY
A statement is true if it corresponds to an object in reality.
Example: A dog barks.
COHERENCE THEORY
A statement is true if it is complementary or coherent to other's beliefs.
Example: "God created the world" is true for Catholics and other religions but false for atheists.
PRAGMATIC THEORY
A statement is true if it is beneficial depending on our perspective.
Example: "Mapúa is a good university"
True because of ABET accreditation.
True because of high passing rates in board exams.
CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY
A statement is true if it is a social norm.
Example: Young people should respect the elderly.
CONSENSUS THEORY
A statement is true if there is an agreement that something is really true.
Example: Scientists agreed that light is a particle.
Propositions
Philosophers consider truth as a kind of quality or value.
Propositions are statements about the world or reality which may or may not carry truth.
What is TRUTH and why is it important?
Knowledge is the clear awareness and understanding of something. It is the product of questions that allow for clear answers provided by facts.
What we know is what is observable or evident in the real world.
Propositions which are observed to be real or truthful are considered facts.
Claims require further examination to establish whether they are true or false.
How can Philosophy guide us in determining truth and opinion?
Opinions are comprised of statements which not only give facts but also provide conclusions or perspectives regarding certain situations. They may advance a belief about certain things or provide explanations.
Opinions are also the bases for making arguments and convincing people that a certain claim is a fact. They are often influenced by bias.
Beliefs are statements that express convictions that are not easily and clearly explained by facts. To judge the truthfulness of a belief, we must also consider things such as the person’s experiences and views.
Explanations are statements that assume the claim to be true and provide reasons why the statement is true.
Fallacies
Fallacies are common errors in reasoning that will undermine the logic of your argument.
Fallacies can be either illegitimate arguments or irrelevant points and are often identified because they lack evidence that supports their claim.
Avoid these common fallacies in your own arguments and watch for them in the arguments of others.
Argumentum Ad Hominem/Personal Attack
Attacking the person instead of the argument itself.
Ad Baculum/Appeal to Force
Using the threat or force or undesirable event to advance an argument.
Ad Misericordiam/Appeal to Pity
Using emotions such as pity and sympathy to advance an argument.
Ad Populum/Appeal to Majority/Bandwagon
The idea is presented as acceptable because a lot of people accept it.
Ad Antiquitatem/Appeal to Tradition
The idea is acceptable because it has been true for a long time.
Ad Verecundiam
Misusing an authority in an argument.
Dicto Simpliciter
Argument based on an unqualified generalization.
Fallacy of Composition
Assuming that what is true of a part is true for the whole.
Fallacy of Division
Assuming that what is true for the whole is true for its parts.
Hasty Generalization
The generalization is reached too hastily. There are too few instances or evidences to support such conclusion.
Petitio Principii (Begging the Question)
Assuming that the thing or idea to be proven is true. Also known as circular reasoning.
Red Herring
Attempting to redirect the argument to another issue to which the person doing the redirecting can better respond.
Biases
Biases are tendencies to prefer one thing over the other. Sometimes biases also affect our way of thinking about a particular situation.
Correspondence Bias
Tendency to judge a person’s personality by his/her actions without regard for external factors or situations.
Confirmation Bias
Tendency to look for and accept information in a way that confirms one’s own beliefs and reject ideas that go against it.
Conflict of Interest
A person or group is connected to or has a vested interest in the issue.
Cultural Bias
Analyzing an event or issue based on one's cultural standards.
Framing
Focusing on a certain aspect of a problem while ignoring other aspects.
Hindsight (Knew-it-all-along Phenomenon)
Is when, after an event occurs, we feel we already knew what was going to happen.