Module 1 Notes — Psychology's History and Approaches (Unit 1, Part 1)
Learning Targets
1-1 Explain how psychology is a science and why the "rat is always right."
1-2 Describe the three key elements of the scientific attitude and how they support scientific inquiry.
1-3 Explain how critical thinking feeds a scientific attitude, and smarter thinking for everyday life.
1-4 Describe how psychology developed from early understandings of mind and body to the beginnings of modern science.
1-5 Describe some important milestones in psychology's early development.
1-6 Explain how behaviorism, Freudian psychology, and humanistic psychology furthered the development of psychological science.
Psychology Is a Science
Underlying all science is a passion to explore and understand without misleading or being misled.
Some questions (e.g., "Is there life after death?") are beyond science and require a leap of faith to answer.
For many ideas (e.g., ESP), the proof is in the pudding: let the facts speak for themselves.
James Randi’s use of a scientific approach to test claims of aura-reading:
Randi: Do you see an aura around my head?
Aura seer: Yes.
Randi: Can you still see the aura if I put a magazine in front of my face?
Aura seer: Of course.
Randi: Then if I step behind a wall barely taller than I am, you could determine my location from the aura visible above my head, right?
Randi was told by the aura seer that no aura seer had agreed to take this simple test.
The phrase "The rat is always right" captures humility in science: if observations contradict theories, the theory must adapt.
The rat metaphor reflects the emphasis on empirical evidence over opinion.
Thinking Critically About: The Scientific Attitude
Three basic attitudes that help make modern science possible:
CURIOSITY: Does it work? When put to the test, can its predictions be confirmed?.\frac{1}{10} second-level measurements illustrate timing in experiments.
SKEPTICISM: What do you mean? How do you know? Sifting reality from fantasy requires healthy skepticism—not cynicism or gullibility.
HUMILITY: Researchers must be willing to be surprised and follow new ideas; if data contradict ideas, revise them.
The scientific attitude is exercised by testing ideas that may seem sensible or wild: lines of inquiry are judged by evidence, not by appeal to intuition alone.
Examples of questions that are tested in psychology:
Can some people read minds? Do facial expressions and body postures affect feelings? Are stress levels related to health? Do parental behaviors determine a child’s sexual orientation?
No evidence supports extrasensory mind-reading. Higher stress relates to poorer health. Facial expressions and postures can influence feelings.
The idea that parental behaviors determine a child’s sexual orientation has not been supported by evidence (Module 50).
The motto "The rat is always right" illustrates humility in science: accept findings even when they conflict with beliefs.
Critical thinking:
Involves questioning assumptions, evaluating sources, detecting biases, assessing evidence, and judging conclusions.
Applies to research reports, online opinions, news, and talks.
Critical thinking helps clear biases and promotes evidence-based conclusions.
Critical thinking practice examples:
Is climate change happening? If yes, is it human-caused? Compare 2016 Louisiana floods vs 2015 bitter winter cold in North America.
Consider credibility of sources, review evidence, and acknowledge multiple perspectives.
Religion and science:
Some religious thinkers view critical thinking and science as threats, but many pioneers in science (e.g., Copernicus, Newton) were religious and believed in understanding God’s handiwork through inquiry.
Critical thinking can yield surprising findings in psychology (examples across modules):
Early brain tissue loss may have minimal long-term effects (Module 12).
Newborns can recognize their mother by odor within days (Module 42).
After brain damage, people may relearn skills while remaining unaware of learning (Modules 31–33).
Diverse groups report similar happiness levels (Module 83).
Sleepwalkers are not dreaming actors; memories are not verbatim replayed; hypnosis/stored memories do not simply replay past experiences (Module 33).
High self-esteem is not always beneficial; opposites do not attract (Module 79).
FYI: Text emphasizes bold key concepts and underlined key people; definitions appear in the margin and Glossary; Appendix C lists Psychological Science’s Key Contributors.
Quotations highlight the spirit of scientific inquiry (Newton, Sagan).
Prescientific Psychology
Human curiosity about mind and body traces back to ancient questions of knowledge and experience.
Early Greek thinkers:
Socrates (469–399 B.C.E.) and Plato (428–348 B.C.E.): mind is separable from body; mind continues after death; knowledge is innate.
Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.): knowledge arises from careful observations; knowledge grows from experience stored in memory (not innate).
The 1600s: modern science emerges; Descartes (1595–1650) argued for innate ideas and mind–body dualism; he proposed that animal spirits flow through hollow nerves to muscles, provoking movement; memory formed as experiences opened pores in the brain for these spirits to flow.
Descartes recognized the importance of nerve paths and reflexes, but lacked contemporary mechanisms for how the brain processes information.
17th–18th centuries: empiricism and experimentation grow in Britain.
Francis Bacon (1561–1626): founder of modern science; warned that humans tend to perceive more order than exists in random events (Novum Organum, 1620).
John Locke (1632–1704): mind at birth is a tabula rasa (blank slate); experience writes on the mind; empirical view that knowledge comes from experience.
Psychological Science Is Born
The birth of psychology as a scientific discipline is marked by the first psychology laboratory:
December 1879, at the University of Leipzig, Germany, under Wilhelm Wundt.
Wundt and assistants measured how long it took to press a telegraph key after a ball hit a platform:
Response time when asked to press as soon as the sound occurred: about \frac{1}{10}\text{ s} \approx 0.1\text{ s}
Response time when asked to press after conscious perception of the sound: about \frac{2}{10}\text{ s} \approx 0.2\text{ s}
This was framed as measuring "atoms of the mind" – the fastest and simplest mental processes.
1883: G. Stanley Hall established the first formal U.S. psychology laboratory at Johns Hopkins University.
Psychology's First Schools of Thought
Early schools of thought included structuralism and functionalism; later schools include Gestalt psychology and psychoanalysis.
Structuralism:
Promoted by Wilhelm Wundt (founder of psychology) and Edward Bradford Titchener.
Goal: identify the mind’s structure using introspection to report sensations, images, and feelings.
Introspection definition: looking inward to directly observe one’s own psychological processes.
Limitations: unreliable due to variability in reports across individuals and moments; requires verbal sophistication; difficult to study complex mental processes directly.
Functionalism:
Promoted by William James (and influenced by Darwin).
Focus: how mental and behavioral processes function – how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.
James emphasized that consciousness serves a function; each mental process helps adapt to the environment.
William James and Mary Whiton Calkins:
James wrote influential psychology texts; mentored Calkins in his graduate seminar when Harvard’s president objected to admitting a woman.
Calkins completed Ph.D. requirements but was denied the degree; she became a prominent memory researcher and the first female president of the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1905.
Women in early psychology:
Margaret Floy Washburn: first official psychology Ph.D.; author of The Animal Mind; second female APA president in 1921.
Despite Washburn and Calkins, women faced barriers; Washburn could not join the all-male Society of Experimental Psychologists.
By the late 20th century, women earned a majority of psychology Ph.D.s and leadership roles in many psychology organizations.
AP EXAM TIP: Psychology’s science is rooted in the tradition of Wundt and his laboratory; correct answers are based on research findings, not common sense.
Psychology's Later Development: Behaviorism, Freudian Psychology, and Humanistic Psychology
Behaviorism (Watson and Skinner):
Emerged in the 1920s as a reaction against introspection; psychology should be the science of observable behavior.
Watson and Rosalie Rayner conducted the Little Albert experiment to show that fear could be learned; emphasized conditioning and environmental influence on behavior.
B. F. Skinner furthered behaviorism with emphasis on consequences shaping behavior (operant conditioning); he rejected introspection.
Freudian (Psychoanalytic) Psychology:
Sigmund Freud emphasized the unconscious mind and childhood experiences shaping behavior and personality; his theories on unconscious conflicts and defense mechanisms influenced self-understanding and therapy.
Humanistic Psychology (1960s):
Responded to perceived limits of both behaviorism and Freudian psychology.
Leaders: Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
Focus on human potential, personal growth, and subjective experience; emphasized growth-promoting environments and self-actualization.
Unit 1 Review
1-1 Summary: Psychology is a science; findings arise from careful observation and testing; abstract ideas like the rat in a maze become facts when supported by data.
1-2 Summary: The three elements of the scientific attitude are curiosity, skepticism, and humility; they support inquiry by guiding questions, critical evaluation, and openness to revision.
1-3 Summary: Critical thinking involves testing ideas, evaluating evidence, and considering alternative explanations; it improves everyday decision making.
1-4 Summary: Psychology’s roots trace to mind–body debates from ancient Greece (Socrates/Plato) and their evolution through Descartes and Locke, with Bacon and Locke contributing to empiricism.
1-5 Milestones: Wundt opened the first psychology laboratory in 1879; structuralism and functionalism emerged as early schools; foundational figures include Wundt, Titchener, James; the field gradually expanded to include women and diverse contributors.
1-6 Developmental Forces: Behaviorism (Watson, Skinner) reframed psychology as the science of observable behavior; Freudian psychology revived interest in mental processes; humanistic psychology emphasized growth and potential.
AP EXAM TIP: Focus on the significance of people and their findings rather than solely on who discovered what; remember that psychology is a science built on research, not just common sense.
Multiple-Choice Questions
By seeking to measure "atoms of the mind," who established the first psychology laboratory?
a. Edward Bradford Titchener
b. Margaret Floy Washburn
c. Wilhelm Wundt
d. G. Stanley Hall
e. William James
Which philosopher proposed that nerve pathways allowed for reflexes?
a. Socrates
b. René Descartes
c. John Locke
d. Aristotle
e. Plato
Who coined the term tabula rasa (blank slate) to explain the impact of experience on shaping an individual?
a. Francis Bacon
b. René Descartes
c. Edward Bradford Titchener
d. Mary Whiton Calkins
e. John Locke
Which statement best describes research typical of Wilhelm Wundt's first psychology laboratory?
a. Testing ESP using a wall to observe auras above participants' head
b. Using a brain-scanning device to determine the impact events have on brain function
c. Measuring the reaction time between hearing a sound and pressing a button
d. Studying helping behavior, based on the premise that people are good - **William James** and **Mary Whiton Calkins**: - **James** wrote influential psychology texts; mentored **Calkins** in his graduate seminar when Harvard’s president objected to admitting a woman. - **Calkins** completed Ph.D. requirements but was denied the degree; she became a prominent memory researcher and the first female president of the **American Psychological Association (APA)** in 1905. - Women in early psychology: - **Margaret Floy Washburn**: first official psychology Ph.D.; author of **The Animal Mind**; second female **APA** president in 1921. - Despite **Washburn** and **Calkins**, women faced barriers; **Washburn** could not join the all-male **Society of Experimental Psychologists**. - By the late 20th century, women earned a majority of psychology Ph.D.s and leadership roles in many psychology organizations. - AP EXAM TIP: Psychology’s science is rooted in the tradition of **Wundt** and his laboratory; correct answers are based on research findings, not common sense. ### Psychology's Later Development: Behaviorism, Freudian Psychology, and Humanistic Psychology - **Behaviorism** (**Watson** and **Skinner**): - Emerged in the 1920s as a reaction against **introspection**; psychology should be the science of observable behavior. - **Watson** and **Rosalie Rayner** conducted the **Little Albert experiment** to show that fear could be learned; emphasized **conditioning** and environmental influence on behavior. - **B. F. Skinner** furthered **behaviorism** with emphasis on consequences shaping behavior (**operant conditioning**); he rejected **introspection**. - **Freudian (Psychoanalytic) Psychology**: - **Sigmund Freud** emphasized the **unconscious mind** and **childhood experiences** shaping behavior and personality; his theories on **unconscious conflicts** and **defense mechanisms** influenced self-understanding and therapy. - **Humanistic Psychology** (1960s): - Responded to perceived limits of both **behaviorism** and **Freudian psychology**. - Leaders: **Carl Rogers** and **Abraham Maslow**. - Focus on **human potential**, **personal growth**, and **subjective experience**; emphasized **growth-promoting environments** and **self-actualization**. ### Unit 1 Review - 1-1 Summary: **Psychology** is a **science**; findings arise from careful observation and testing; abstract ideas like the **rat in a maze** become facts when supported by data. - 1-2 Summary: The three elements of the **scientific attitude** are **curiosity**, **skepticism**, and **humility**; they support inquiry by guiding questions, critical evaluation, and openness to revision. - 1-3 Summary: **Critical thinking** involves testing ideas, evaluating evidence, and considering alternative explanations; it improves everyday decision making. - 1-4 Summary: **Psychology’s roots** trace to **mind–body debates** from **ancient Greece** (**Socrates**/**Plato**) and their evolution through **Descartes** and **Locke**, with **Bacon** and **Locke** contributing to **empiricism**. - 1-5 Milestones: **Wundt** opened the first psychology laboratory in 1879; **structuralism** and **functionalism** emerged as early schools; foundational figures include **Wundt**, **Titchener**, **James**; the field gradually expanded to include women and diverse contributors. - 1-6 Developmental Forces: **Behaviorism** (**Watson**, **Skinner**) reframed psychology as the science of observable behavior; **Freudian psychology** revived interest in mental processes; **humanistic psychology** emphasized growth and potential. - AP EXAM TIP: Focus on the significance of people and their findings rather than solely on who discovered what; remember that **psychology** is a **science** built on research, not just common sense. ### Multiple-Choice Questions 1. By seeking to measure "**atoms of the mind**," who established the first psychology laboratory? - a. Edward Bradford Titchener - b. Margaret Floy Washburn - c. **Wilhelm Wundt** - d. G. Stanley Hall - e. William James 1. Which philosopher proposed that **nerve pathways** allowed for **reflexes**? - a. Socrates - b. **René Descartes** - c. John Locke - d. Aristotle - e. Plato 1. Who coined the term **tabula rasa** (**blank slate**) to explain the impact of experience on shaping an individual? - a. Francis Bacon - b. René Descartes - c. Edward Bradford Titchener - d. Mary Whiton Calkins - e. **John Locke** 1. Which statement best describes research typical of **Wilhelm Wundt's** first psychology laboratory? - a. Testing ESP using a wall to observe auras above participants' head - b. Using a brain-scanning device to determine the impact events have on brain function - c. Measuring the **reaction time** between hearing a sound and **pressing a button** -
e. Making careful observations of animal spirits
With which statement would John B. Watson most likely agree?
a. Psychology should study the growth potential in all people.
b. Psychology should study the unconscious mind.
c. Psychology should focus on observable behavior.
d. Psychology should study mental thought processes.
e. Psychology should study how culture and beliefs impact an individual.
Practice FRQs
Explain why each of the following people were significant in the history of psychology: • William James • Mary Whiton Calkins • Margaret Floy Washburn
Scoring: 1 point for each of the three individuals and their contributions (as indicated in the unit materials).
Analyze how curiosity, skepticism, and humility enable you to distinguish between gut intuition (feeling like you know something) and the scientific attitude (seeking to verify what you know with evidence).
Scoring: 3 points; 1 point for identifying each trait and 1 point for linking to the scientific attitude.
AP EXAM TIP
Memory research reveals a testing effect: we retain information better if we actively retrieve it via self-testing and rehearsal. Use Check Your Understanding and Test Yourself items to reinforce learning; answers for Test Yourself are in Appendix E.
connections and practical implications
The scientific attitudes and critical thinking skills discussed here lay the groundwork for evaluating research claims in psychology and related fields.
Understanding the historical development of psychology helps contextualize current methods, ethics, and debates about the role of introspection, behaviorism, cognitive psychology, and humanistic approaches in science and therapy.
The emphasis on evidence, skepticism, and humility supports better decision-making in everyday life, public policy, and personal growth.