Module 3 Notes: American Foreign Policy and the Great War

1867: Seward’s Alaska and early Pacific expansion

The United States’ designs in the Pacific trace back to $1867<br />\ne$ when Secretary of State William Seward purchased Alaska from Russia for about $7{,}000{,}000$ .
Question posed: “Guess how much we paid for Alaska?” highlighting the modest amount by today’s standards.
The US hoped to control the entire Pacific Coast from $1867$ era onward—from Alaska to Mexico—but Canada became independent that same year and was not willing to cede its Pacific coast.
Seward’s successors at the State Department continued the expansionist vision, seeking key Pacific ports to facilitate a modern navy.
Two island groups were especially attractive for naval power: the Samoan Islands and the Sandwich Islands (now known as the Hawaiian Islands).
- Hagopago (Pago Pago) was a major Samoan port; Pearl Harbor would be the key Hawaiian harbor.
The story of Hawaii’s incorporation as a territory is unusual: Hawai‘i had been a unified kingdom since $1795$ and hosted a large American Christian missionary presence and a sugarcane economy.
The sugarcane crop: a major profitable export tied to Hawaiian-American interests.
In $1875$ , Hawai‘i signed a reciprocal trade agreement with the United States allowing Hawaiian sugar to enter the US market duty-free in exchange for American protection. The agreement opened Hawai‘i to eventual US takeover; it also fostered a sugar boom built on cheap labor (Japanese and Chinese immigrants).
By the 1890s, native Hawaiians became a minority due to disease (e.g., smallpox) while Asian workers became the majority.
1891: Queen Liliuokalani sought to curb the power of American planters; in 1893, planters, with US Marine support, overthrew the queen.
John Stevens (American ambassador) supported the overthrow; he declared, “the Hawaiian pear is now fully ripe, and this is the golden hour to block it.”
The planters formed a government and asked the US to annex Hawai‘i.
1893–1894: President Benjamin Harrison attempted an annexation treaty; Grover Cleveland took office, conducted an investigation, and found that Americans had acted improperly and that most native Hawaiians opposed annexation. Cleveland sought to restore the queen, but economically powerful planters resisted and established the short-lived Republic of Hawai‘i with provision for future annexation.
1897: President William McKinley declared that it was the United States’ manifest destiny to annex Hawai‘i and proceeded with annexation despite native opposition.
The Hawaiian case illustrates how economic power (sugar) and strategic location (Pearl Harbor) shaped US expansionism.

The Spanish-American War as a turning point for Pacific and Caribbean imperialism

The war’s Spanish colonial holdings—Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines—became focal points for US imperial ambitions.
The war occurred in 1898 and lasted only ≈ $4$ months; it dramatically increased US confidence and reinforced the belief in a manifest destiny to shape the world.
Admiral Alfred T. Mahan (late 19th century) was a key proponent of sea power: his book, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660–1783, argued that national power is tied to naval strength, Caribbean bases, a canal across the Isthmus of Panama, and expanded Pacific possessions.
Causes and spark: yellow journalism and sensational reporting by Hearst and Pulitzer helped inflame public opinion about Spanish brutality in Cuba (e.g., the reconcentration camps under Weyler).
USS Maine crisis: the ship’s explosion in Havana Harbor on $02/15/1898$ catalyzed war sentiment with the rallying cry “Remember the Maine.”
1898: Congress declared war against Spain; the US declared war; Dewey’s Pacific squadron destroyed the Spanish fleet at Manila Bay on $05/01/1898$ with no American casualties in the battle.
Ground combat included American troops and Filipino insurgents; Emilio Aguinaldo declared Philippine independence on $06/12/1898$ , signaling a shift from anti-Spanish to anti-American occupation in the Philippines.
In the Caribbean, African American troops (notably the Ninth Cavalry) faced logistical challenges and harsh conditions; disease (yellow fever) and poor rations caused significant deaths.
Theodore Roosevelt led the Rough Riders, a diverse unit that included cowboys, musicians, and clerks. Roosevelt’s Rough Riders and two African American regiments charged Kettle Hill, contributing to the fall of the Spanish fortress at San Juan Hill.
The US captured San Juan Hill and Havana’s harbor defenses, while Puerto Rico became a target for American forces. Spain agreed to sign a peace treaty on $08/12/1898$ , ending hostilities.
Philippines outcome: the US replaced Spain as colonial power; Filipino insurgents continued fighting for independence, setting the stage for the Philippine-American War (1899–1902).
Filipino-American War (1899–1902):
- Combat involved more than $125{,}000$ American troops and resulted in about $4{,}000$ American deaths and around $200{,}000$ Filipino deaths (primarily civilians).
- Widespread atrocities by American troops were reported and criticized in later reflections
Anti-imperialist sentiment grows: the Anti-Imperialist League forms in $1898$ and expands in $1899$ , attracting prominent opponents including Andrew Carnegie, Benjamin Harrison, Grover Cleveland, and others who urge McKinley to abandon the Philippines. Carnegie even offered to purchase Philippine independence for $20{,}000{,}000$ , which McKinley declined.
1900s governance of the Philippines shifts: military government yields to civilian rule under Taft; Taft becomes civil governor after the Philippine government act in $1902$ declared the Philippines an unorganized territory, meaning it would not be eligible for statehood. Philippine independence would come later, in $1946$ .
Implications: US imperialism extended into Asia and the Pacific; the Open Door policy sought to protect American commercial access to China while avoiding formal colonization.

The Open Door Policy and China

After securing the Philippines, the United States pursued China’s market access in a unilateral fashion via the Open Door policy (articulated by Secretary of State John Hay) in $1899–1900$ .
Core principle: China should remain open to trade for all nations; no one should seize Chinese ports or territories.
Legality: No formal international treaty established the Open Door; it had no binding legal status, and no country publicly rejected it, but no one openly endorsed it either.
Longevity: The policy aimed to preserve China’s territorial integrity for decades, lasting roughly until Japan’s invasion of Manchuria in $1932$ .
Significance: It protected American commercial interests while appeasing anti-imperialists in the short term, by avoiding outright takeover of Chinese territories.

Theodore Roosevelt: Big Stick diplomacy and Pacific power projection

Roosevelt ascended to the presidency in the early 20th century and pushed the United States to center stage in world affairs.
Big Stick diplomacy: Roosevelt argued that civilized nations must project power to maintain order and spread Western civilization. He saw a civilizational duty to “spread the merits of Christian civilization” and to impose order on “barbarous and savage” peoples.
The Panama Canal as a strategic objective: Roosevelt aimed to shorten the Atlantic-Pacific voyage and enable rapid naval deployment.
Panama and the canal: Panama was part of Colombia; after initial British support (which cooled in $1901$ ), the US acquired the rights to build the canal by purchasing the French assets and striking a deal with Colombia. When Colombia demanded more money, the Panamanian people rose in revolt, and Roosevelt supported the rebels. The US then secured a canal zone 10 miles wide in perpetuity, and ownership of the canal.
Aftermath and critiques: Roosevelt faced accusations of staging a unilateral seizure of the canal zone and violating international law, while he argued that construction would continue regardless. The canal opened in $1914$ , marking a major engineering achievement.
Latin American resentment: The canal and “Big Stick” approach fostered decades of Latin American suspicion toward the United States, prompting the Drago Doctrine (1902) and the Monroe Doctrine to resist European debt collection interventions in the region.
Drago Doctrine (1902): Latin American countries asserted that debt collection by foreign powers should not justify intervention; the US and European powers largely ignored it, pursuing debt collection in places like Venezuela (blockaded by German and British ships in $1902$ ).
Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine (1904): The US claimed a right to intervene in Latin America to prevent European intervention and ensure debt repayment; this justified ongoing US intervention in the Western Hemisphere.
Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) and Portsmouth Peace Conference: Roosevelt brokered the 1905 Treaty of Portsmouth, recognizing Japan’s predominant interests in Korea and Japan’s control over Korea; Russia acknowledged Japan’s interests, and Manchuria remained contested.
Taft-Katsura Agreement (1905): The United States acknowledged Japanese control over Korea while Japan acknowledged US control over the Philippines, signaling a tacit understanding on regional spheres of influence.
Taft–Katsura and Takahira Agreements (1905–1907): A second accord (Takahira Agreement, 1907) reaffirmed the principles of China’s territorial integrity and equal commercial opportunity, and described a joint approach to economic exploitation in China.
Tensions with Japan: Despite these agreements, tensions persisted, including racial anxieties (the “yellow peril”) and discriminatory policies on the U.S. West Coast (e.g., the 1906 San Francisco school segregation policy). The Roosevelt administration pressured settlement of these tensions to preserve stability for economic interests.
Summary: Roosevelt expanded US power abroad, but his imperialism rested on a strongly racist worldview and created long-term resentment in Latin America and parts of Asia.

Taft’s Dollar Diplomacy and US economic leverage abroad

President William Howard Taft pursued “dollar diplomacy”: use of economic leverage (investments, loans) to promote stability and protect US interests abroad rather than military intervention alone.
Taft used the State Department to support American companies and banks investing in less developed nations in East Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean, while ensuring the security of those investments through intervention when necessary.
Nicaragua ( $1909–1911$ ): Taft sent US Marines to support a revolution and to install a favorable government; two years later, the Marines remained in Nicaragua for a decade to quell continued unrest and safeguard investments.
This policy reflected a shift from Roosevelt’s military-driven diplomacy to a financial-political approach to influence other nations.

Wilson’s Moral Diplomacy and Latin American interventions

Woodrow Wilson promoted “moral diplomacy,” claiming to promote equality and respect for Latin American states; in practice, Wilson’s administration conducted frequent military interventions in Latin America.
Dominican Republic (1915): When the Dominican Republic refused a treaty granting US governance rights, Wilson sent Marines to establish a military government and fought a guerrilla war against American-backed authorities.
Haiti (1915): Wilson intervened to restore order on the island of Hispaniola, justifying intervention as a means to protect American interests.
Mexico (1910–1914): Mexico’s revolution toppled Porfirio Díaz; Huerta’s coup and the murder of Madero led Wilson to refuse to recognize Huerta and to impose a naval blockade to prevent arms imports.
Veracruz incident (April 1914): Nine US sailors entered Veracruz during a blockade, were briefly arrested, then released; Mexico refused a 21-gun salute to the American flag, prompting US troops to occupy the city for seven months.
Huerta’s ouster and Carranza’s rise: Carranza eventually replaced Huerta, but US intervention continued as the Mexican revolution unfolded. Pancho Villa, leading a rival revolutionary faction, raided U.S. towns (e.g., Columbus, NM) in $1916$ to provoke US intervention and topple Carranza.
Pershing’s expedition (1916–1917): Wilson sent 6,000 troops under General John J. Pershing to pursue Villa into northern Mexico, but the mission did not succeed in capturing Villa before broader global events (World War I) redirected priorities.
Pancho Villa’s notoriety included a pet donkey named “Woodrow Wilson,” illustrating the era’s frankness and humor in teaching about diplomacy and war.
By the time the focus shifted to the outbreak of a larger European war, Wilson’s prewar policy had already marked a significant expansion of US involvement in neighboring regions and highlighted the friction between ideals and realpolitik.

Summary: Themes, implications, and connections

The period from the late 19th to the early 20th century shows a clear shift from continental expansion to global power projection: Alaska, Hawaii, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam, and China became focal points for American foreign policy.
Economic motives (sugar, minerals, markets) fused with strategic concerns (naval bases, canal access) to drive imperial and interventionist actions.
The era saw a clash between expansionist impulse and growing domestic opposition, including powerful anti-imperialist voices (e.g., the Anti-Imperialist League) and concerns about racial hierarchies and the spread of American power.
The Open Door policy sought to balance American commercial interests with anti-colonial rhetoric about China’s territorial integrity, although in practice it enabled continued economic exploitation.
The canal project symbolized technological prowess and strategic design but bred resentment in Latin America and deepened distrust toward U.S. foreign policy.
The era laid groundwork for later debates about American global leadership, sovereignty, and the moral responsibilities of a rising power.

Key dates and figures (selected reference points)

$1867$ : Alaska purchase from Russia; purchase price $7{,}000{,}000$ .
$1875$ : Hawaiian reciprocal trade agreement; sugar enters US market duty-free; Hawaiian protection guaranteed.
$1893$ : Hawaiian monarchy overthrown with US support; Republic of Hawaii established; annexation efforts begin.
$1898$ : Spanish-American War; Treaty of Paris ends war; Cuba becomes independent; US acquires Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.
$1899–1902$ : Philippine-American War; significant casualties among both sides and notable American atrocities discussed.
$1902$ : Philippines designated an unorganized territory via the Philippine Government Act; statehood denied.
$1904–1905$ : Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine; Taft-Katsura Agreement (1905) and Takahira Agreement (1907).
$1906$ : San Francisco segregation in schools; racial tensions on the West Coast (the “yellow peril”).
$1909–1911$ : Taft’s Nicaragua interventions; economic leverage and stabilization efforts.
$1914–1917$ : Veracruz incident; Pancho Villa raids; Pershing expedition; increasing US involvement in Latin America ahead of WWI.
$1910–1920s$ : Ongoing debates over imperialism, democracy, and the role of the United States on the world stage.

Connections to broader themes and real-world relevance

The period demonstrates how economic interests, national security, and racial ideologies intersected in formulating US foreign policy.
The Open Door Policy foreshadowed later debates about globalization and access to markets without formal colonization.
The Roosevelt Corollary and Dollar Diplomacy set precedents for military and economic interventions in the Western Hemisphere that echoed through the 20th century.
The Philippines and the larger Pacific theater highlighted the tensions between anti-colonial aspirations and American strategic ambitions, informing later debates about democracy, sovereignty, and empire.
Domestic social and racial tensions (e.g., on the West Coast) influenced foreign policy and public opinion about international competition and immigration.

Ethical, philosophical, and practical implications

Imperial expansion raised ethical questions about self-determination and sovereignty of colonized or semi-colonized peoples.
The rhetoric of “civilizing missions” clashed with the realities of conquest, occupation, and atrocity, prompting sustained internal critique within the United States.
Practical considerations—naval power, global trade, and strategic canal access—drove policy decisions even when they conflicted with democratic ideals.

Notable quotes and metaphors from the lecture

“The Hawaiian pear is now fully ripe, and this is the golden hour to block it.” (John Stevens, reflecting planters’ push for annexation)
“I took the canal zone, and Congress can debate the legitimacy of how it was acquired. But in the meantime, construction will go on.” (Roosevelt on the Panama Canal)
Explanation of yellow journalism: sensational pictures and stories that inflamed public opinion and contributed to war fever.

Formulas and explicit numerical references (LaTeX)

Purchase price of Alaska: $7{,}000{,}000$
Panama Zone width: $10$ miles (later sharpened from initial negotiation)
US troops in the Philippines: $125{,}000$
Filipino deaths: $200{,}000$ (mostly civilians); American deaths in the Philippines: $4{,}000$
Armed forces in the Cuban campaign: $11{,}000$ troops (approx.)
Atlantic–Pacific canal opening: $1914$
Years of the Philippine-American War: $1899–1902$
San Juan Hill battle: during the Spanish-American War (4 months total in war)
Sep 1904: Roosevelt Corollary announced; Dominican Republic crisis in 1902 for context

Quick connections to prior and subsequent lectures (guide for exam readiness)

Preceding modules likely covered European imperialism and early American expansion; this module ties those themes to the Pacific and Caribbean theaters.
The Open Door policy links to later US policy in East Asia and the rise of Japan as a power in the Pacific.
The outcomes of the Spanish-American War set the stage for American involvement in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, influencing later debates about nuclear and military strategy as well as international law.
The moral diplomacy and mixed outcomes highlight tensions between ideals (democracy, self-determination) and strategic interests that recur in foreign policy analyses.

End-of-lecture takeaway

The era documented demonstrates the complexity of US expansion: a blend of strategic imperatives, economic opportunity, and conflicting ethical ideals—leading to both global influence and enduring controversy.