20-Foreign Affairs

Context: England’s war with France had gone badly, especially with the loss of Calais, which weakened the Crown’s finances. Elizabeth wanted to end the war due to the financial strain on both England and France.
Details:
- The peace treaty was concluded at Cateau-Cambresis in April 1559.
- France agreed to hold Calais for 8 years, after which it would be returned to England, provided England kept the peace.
- If France failed to return Calais, they were to pay 500,000 crowns (£125,000).

Context: Henry II of France was succeeded by Francis II, with the Catholic Guise faction gaining power in France.
Conflict: The Lords of the Congregation, led by John Knox (a radical Calvinist), sought assistance against the French-backed regent, Mary of Guise.
Elizabeth’s Response:
- Elizabeth was cautious about intervention, especially because of her opposition to Knox.
- Cecil supported intervention, seeing it as crucial for England’s security.
- Initially, support was limited to money and armaments, but in December 1559, Elizabeth sent a navy to the Firth of Forth to block French reinforcements.
Key Events:
- Treaty of Berwick (February 1560) – the Lords of the Congregation offered conditional support.
- March 1560 – English forces besieged Leith, where most French troops were stationed. The siege failed, but other circumstances, including the death of Mary of Guise, led to the French withdrawal.
- Treaty of Edinburgh (July 1560) – secured favourable terms for England, recognizing the Lords of the Congregation as a provisional government.

Conflict: Religious conflict broke out between Catholics and Protestants in France in March 1562.
Elizabeth’s Involvement:
- Encouraged by Robert Dudley (Earl of Leicester), Elizabeth promised 6,000 men and a £30,000 loan to support the Huguenot leader, Prince of Condé.
- The Huguenot army was defeated, and Condé was captured. The Duke of Guise (Catholic leader) was assassinated.
- The conflict ended with the Treaty of Troyes (1564), where Elizabeth lost her indemnity from the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis and Calais permanently.

Consolidate her position.
Settle religious issues.
Pursue peaceful settlement with France.
Ensure security and economic interests, especially protecting trade routes and borders.

Context: Elizabeth’s marriage (or lack thereof) was a significant issue throughout her reign, as it had direct implications for the succession.
- Being single left the succession uncertain if Elizabeth died prematurely, which caused anxiety among her ministers.

Robert Dudley – Elizabeth’s possible choice, but political risks due to the mysterious death of Dudley’s first wife, Amy Robsart.
Philip II of Spain – Polite gesture, but not a serious offer due to his Catholicism.
Archduke Ferdinand and Charles – Catholic suitors, not pursued.
Prince Erik of Sweden – Protestant suitor, but Elizabeth gave little encouragement.

Jan 1559: The House of Commons raised the issue of marriage, but Elizabeth deflected the pressure.
1563: Parliament raised the issue again after Elizabeth’s smallpox scare.
Oct 1562: Elizabeth was seriously ill, leading to a succession crisis.
1566: Parliament pressed Elizabeth again, causing her to publicly rebuke her councillors.
1579: Marriage to Francis, Duke of Anjou was proposed but rejected due to fears of French influence.
Final Succession: Elizabeth eventually chose not to marry. After her death, James VI of Scotland became the successor due to his Protestant faith and best hereditary claim, despite the exclusion of the Stuarts from Henry VIII’s will.

Context: Mary, a Catholic and claimant to the English throne, posed a continual threat to Elizabeth.
- After Mary’s marriage to Earl of Darnley, which led to scandal and his murder, she married Earl of Bothwell, leading to civil unrest and her fleeing to England.
- Catholic conspiracies: Following Mary’s exile, English Catholics viewed her as the rightful queen, and she became the focus of various plots against Elizabeth.

1571 – Ridolfi Plot: A conspiracy to place Mary on the throne by marrying her to Duke of Norfolk. Norfolk was executed for treason.
1583 – Throckmorton Plot: A plan for a foreign invasion to place Mary on the throne, discovered by Walsingham’s espionage network.
1585 – Parry Plot: An assassination attempt on Elizabeth, which led to the acceleration of parliamentary actions to ensure the queen’s safety.
1586 – Babington Plot: Mary’s complicity in a plot to assassinate Elizabeth was uncovered by Walsingham’s spies, leading to her trial and execution.

Reluctance: Elizabeth hesitated to execute another monarch but eventually ordered Mary’s trial at Fotheringhay Castle in 1587.
After months of delay, Elizabeth signed the death warrant on 1 February 1587, leading to Mary’s execution, which was seen as a martyrdom by Catholics.

Early Relations: Initially cordial but deteriorated over issues like the Caribbean trade and John Hawkins’ expeditions, which angered Spain.
Dutch Revolt: Elizabeth supported Dutch Protestants against Spanish rule, especially after the 1568 incident where Spanish treasure was seized in English ports.
Relations Decline: Tensions escalated, especially after the Pacification of Ghent (1576) and the Treaty of Joinville (1584), aligning Spain and Catholic France.

Context: Spain’s attempt to invade England after years of escalating tensions.
- Planning: Took two years, with Philip II seeing it as a Catholic crusade.
- Engagement: The Armada was forced to retreat due to unfavourable winds after being engaged in battle in the English Channel.
- Impact: Spain lost ships, marking a decisive defeat.

War at Sea: The war dragged on for another 16 years, including naval campaigns and actions in the Caribbean and France.
- Key figures: Sir Francis Drake, Sir John Hawkins.
- Notable victories: Capture of Cadiz in 1587, which humiliated Spain.
War in the Netherlands:
- After Leicester’s failures, English forces, under Sir Francis Vere, worked with Dutch forces to expel the Spanish from the northern Netherlands.
- By 1594, the Dutch revolt had succeeded, with the northern Netherlands becoming independent.