Chapter 28: Revolutions and National States in the Atlantic World (In-Depth Notes)

The Enlightenment

  • Trend:
    • Shift from Aristotelian philosophy and church doctrine toward rational thought and scientific analysis.
  • Key Thinkers:
    • John Locke: Promoted natural laws of politics.
    • Baron de Montesquieu: Analyzed government structures.
    • Voltaire: Criticized French monarchy and Catholic Church, known for his deist views.

Key Concepts of Enlightenment

  • Theory of Progress:
    • Enlightenment thought aimed at human harmony and social progress.
    • Resulted in weakened organized religion and the rise of secular values and rational analysis.
  • Popular Sovereignty:
    • Shift from divine right of kings to the idea that rulers derive power from the consent of the governed (influenced by Locke).

Major Philosophes

  • Voltaire:
    • Advocated for freedom of speech and religion.
  • Jean-Jacques Rousseau:
    • Advocated for equality before the law and collective sovereignty in “The Social Contract.”

The American Revolution

  • Context:
    • Colonists initially viewed themselves as British subjects, with strong ties and economic relationships with Britain.
    • Increasing tax burdens post-French and Indian War (e.g., Sugar Act, Stamp Act).
  • Key Events:
    • Formation of the Continental Congress (1774) to oppose British policies.
    • Adoption of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776.

Revolutionary War Dynamics

  • Loyalty Divisions:
    • Patriots: Majority supporting the revolution.
    • Loyalists: Estimated 20% of colonists remained loyal to Britain.
    • Neutrals: Groups like Quakers avoided taking sides.
  • Key Advantages:
    • Colonies had popular support and logistical advantages, while Britain maintained a strong central government, navy, and loyalist population.

Building an Independent State

  • Conclusion of the War:
    • British Army surrendered at Yorktown (1781), leading to the Treaty of Paris (1783) which recognized U.S. independence.
    • Drafting of the U.S. Constitution (1787) emphasizing legal equality for men of property.

The French Revolution

  • Catalysts:
    • Severe fiscal crises in France due to war debts and taxation challenged the existing social order.
  • Estates General:
    • Comprised of three estates: clergy, nobility, and commoners.
    • Third estate demanded greater representation, leading to the formation of the National Assembly.

Key Events in the French Revolution

  • Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789):
    • Marked the start of widespread revolt against the monarchy.
  • Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen (August 1789):
    • Enshrined individual rights and sovereignty of the people, influenced by American ideals.
  • Reign of Terror:
    • Led by Maximilien Robespierre; thousands executed as enemies of the revolution.

Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte

  • Background:
    • Gained prominence during the revolution and eventually overthrew the Directory.
    • Crowned himself Emperor in 1804 showcasing irony in revolutionary achievements.
  • Napoleonic Code:
    • Established civil duties and rights but enforced patriarchal authority; served as a model for future civil codes.

Haitian Revolution

  • Context:
    • Slave rebellion inspired by Enlightenment ideas and earlier revolutions.
  • Key Figures:
    • Toussaint Louverture: Led the slave revolt and established a constitution for equality before his arrest by Napoleon.
  • Outcome:
    • Haiti declared independence in 1804, becoming the first successful slave-led revolt.

Latin American Revolutions

  • Societal Structure:
    • Divided between peninsulares, criollos, mestizos, and indigenous populations.
  • Key Independence Movements:
    • Led by figures like Simón Bolívar and Miguel Hidalgo against Spanish colonial rule.
    • Resulted in the establishment of republics and fought for regional self-determination.

Emergence of Nationalism

  • Diverse forms:
    • Cultural nationalism emphasized shared customs and history.
    • Political nationalism sought independence from empires.
    • Resulted in uprisings across Europe, particularly in 1848, revealing the complexities of national identity.

Conclusion: Ideologies and their Impacts

  • Responses to Change:
    • Conservatism and liberalism emerged as reactions to the dramatic changes in societies across Europe and America, shaping modern political landscapes.
  • Women in Revolutions:
    • Played pivotal roles yet gained limited rights post-revolutions, highlighting the struggled for gender equality as an ongoing endeavor.