History of the Crusades, the Black Plague, and the Rise of Islamic Civilization

The Crusades: Military Campaigns and Inter-Faith Conflict\n- Definition of Crusade: A crusade is categorized as a military action wherein the military attempts to convert populations into Christianity.\n- Nature of the Wars: The Crusades consisted of a series of wars involving Christian knights fighting against Islamic caliphates.\n- Causes and Origins ($3/19$):\n - Muslim Turks were progressively taking over territories belonging to the Byzantine Empire, which included the city of Jerusalem.\n - In response to these territorial losses, Pope Urban II issued a call for a holy war, or crusade, against the Muslim forces.\n - The Pope justified this call by stating that people were being killed in Jerusalem.\n- The Outcomes of the Conflict:\n - Ultimately, the crusaders failed to secure or retain control over the holy land.\n - Economic Impact: Despite the military failure, the Crusades revitalized trade because they increased the demand for goods from different geographic regions.\n\n# The Commercial Revolution and Socio-Economic Shifts\n- Development and Emercence ($3/24$):\n - The Crusades acted as a catalyst for increased trade activity.\n - This period saw a decline in the system of manorialism and a rise in specialized workers.\n- Impact of the Commercial Revolution ($3/24$):\n - The revolution led to serfs obtaining their freedom.\n - It fostered a significant revival of learning across Europe.\n\n# The Bubonic Plague: Origins and Catastrophic Impact\n- Timeline and Spread ($3/27$):\n - The black plague originated in East Asia and was transmitted through trade routes.\n - It reached Europe and spread with extreme speed because the population lived in close proximity to rats and fleas.\n - The plague reached Italy first via trade; the final regions it reached were Sweden and Northern Europe.\n- Casualties and Statistical Data ($4/16$):\n - Between the years $1347$ and $1350$, approximately $25,000,000$ people died due to the bubonic plague.\n - This loss represented approximately $\frac{1}{3}$ of the entire population of Europe.\n- Socio-Economic Consequences:\n - Decline of Feudalism: The plague led to the substantial decline of the feudal system.\n - Rise of Capitalism: As feudalism faded, capitalism emerged, based on trade, capital (money), and the principles of supply and demand.\n - Agrarian Changes: Farmers began selling farm goods and transitioned to paying lords in currency rather than labor. This shift also triggered serf uprisings.\n - Economic Decline: There was a massive decline in overall trade and the economy.\n- Religious and Geopolitical Shifts:\n - The tragedy caused people to begin questioning the Church and their faith.\n - This era saw the development of nations such as England and France.\n\n# Political Developments: Magna Carta and the Model Parliament\n- Impact of the Model Parliament ($4/15$):\n - The development of the Model Parliament was significant because it allowed commoners to have a voice and a say in the government.\n\n# The Hundred Years' War\n- Causes and Timeline ($4/20$):\n - In $1337$, England invaded France following the death of the last Capetian king, who died without leaving an heir to the throne.\n- Military Technology: The English utilized longbows, which were long bows capable of shooting accurately from far distances.\n- Results: Eventually, the French succeeded in driving the English out of their territory.\n\n# Fundamental Principles and Pillars of Islam\n- The City of Mecca:\n - Mecca contains the famous shrine known as the Ka’bah.\n - It serves as the largest trade center along the Red Sea.\n - It is a primary location for cultural diffusion.\n- General Characteristics of Islam:\n - It is an Abrahamic faith.\n - Followers believe that Muhammed was the last prophet.\n - The religion currently has $1.9 imes 10^9$ followers.\n - Houses of worship are called mosques and are identifiable by two tall spires known as minarets.\n- The Five Pillars of Islam:\n - Shahada (Declaration of Faith): The belief that there is only one god.\n - Salat (Obligatory Prayer): Ritual prayer performed five times a day toward Mecca, including prayer in a mosque on Friday.\n - Zakat (Compulsory Giving): Almsgiving where individuals give $2.5\,\%$ of their income to charitable causes.\n - Sawm (Fasting): Fasting during the month of Ramadan, which involves no eating or drinking from sunrise to sunset.\n - Hajj (Pilgrimage): A pilgrimage to Mecca that must be completed at least once in a lifetime; between $2,000,000$ and $3,000,000$ Muslims make this pilgrimage every year.\n\n# Islamic Texts, Law, and Customs\n- The Quran: The holy book of Islam, believed to contain the word of God. It was compiled and written after the death of Muhammed.\n- Sharia Law: This is the codification of Islamic law based on the Quran.\n- Hadith: A collection of stories and sayings of muhammad, which are preserved in many different documents.\n- Scope of Law: Sharia law extends beyond religious practice to encompass all aspects of human activity.\n- Jihad: Defined as the spiritual struggle within oneself against sin and the effort to become a better Muslim.\n- Prohibitions: Muslims are prohibited from drinking alcohol, eating pork, and gambling.\n- Holiest Cities: The three most sacred cities are Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem.\n- Monotheism: Islam is monotheistic and worships the same god as other Abrahamic faiths, referred to as Allah. They recognize common prophets but view Muhammad as the last and greatest prophet.\n\n# Historical Expansion and Successive Caliphates\n- Early History:\n - In $622\,\text{CE}$, muhhamad established the Constitution of Medina and formed a community called the Umma.\n - In $630\,\text{CE}$, he traveled from Medina to Mecca, marking the first Hajj. He converted Mecca to Islam and destroyed pagan sites, establishing the ka’bah as the holy site.\n- Succession and Sects: Following muhhamads death, the community split into two groups: the Shiite/Shia (who wanted a ruler from muhhamad’s bloodline) and the Sunni (who believed any honorable Muslim could lead).\n- Leadership Definitions:\n - Caliph: A leader of an Islamic polity, regarded as a successor of muhhamad (the definition in the notes was incomplete because the scribe ran out of time).\n - Caliphate: An Islamic empire ruled by a caliph.\n- Reasons for Rapid Expansion:\n - Military Conquest: Possession of great warriors and a strong cavalry. The Byzantine and Persian empires were weakened by constant fighting with each other. Islam provided a sense of unity.\n - Political Control: Abrahamic people of other faiths were allowed to live in the empire but were subject to higher taxes. Jihad was conducted against pagans and non-believers. Many converted to Islam specifically to avoid the additional tax.\n - Trade: The faith was easy to learn, spread through many trade routes, and was promoted by honest merchants.\n- The Major Caliphates:\n - Rashidan: The first caliphate, responsible for significant expansion.\n - Umayyad: The second caliphate, which grew the empire further. They unified the empire through a common currency, the Arabic language, and standardized systems of measurement. They increased the head tax on non-Muslim Abrahamic people.\n - Abbasids: Seized control of the empire in $750\,\text{CE}$ and relocated the capital from Damascus to Baghdad.\n\n# The Islamic Golden Age\n- Duration and Influence: The Golden Age lasted for $500$ years. Baghdad served as the center for learning and influence.\n- Intellectual and Industrial Advancements:\n - Developed techniques for creating thicker paper.\n - Mathematics: Advancements in geometry, trigonometry ($\text{trig}$), and algebra. They brought the Indian system of numbers and decimals to the Middle East.\n - Science and Medicine: Improvement of astronomical instruments, development of hospitals and medicine, and creation of maps. Significant discoveries were made regarding mental illness, germs, and the use of quarantine.**