CPT chpt7

Chapter Seven: Fallacies

7.1. Introduction to Fallacies

  • Definition of a Fallacy: A fallacy is defined as an error in reasoning.

    • Fallacies can arise from two main causes:

    1. Mistaken Assumptions: We mistakenly assume that we have proven our conclusion when we have not.

    2. Weak Evidence: We assume we have stronger evidence for the conclusion than there actually is.

  • Importance of Studying Fallacies:

    • Avoid committing fallacies to ensure sound and valid reasoning.

    • Helps correct biases in reasoning that may be difficult to spot without focused analysis.

    • Enables identification of errors in reasoning committed by others, particularly influential figures like politicians and media.

    • Promotes effective communication and informed decision-making.

7.2. Appeal to Authority (Latin: Argumentum ad Verecundiam)

  • Definition: An attempt to prove a conclusion by appealing improperly to the opinion of an authority.

  • Key Features of Improper Authority Appeals:

    • The authority cited is irrelevant or unrecognized in the area concerning the argument.

  • Examples:

    • "My mom says if I eat watermelon seeds, a plant will grow in my belly and I’ll turn green. Because my mom said it, it must be true."

    • "I think that the earth is flat because I’m a fan of B.o.B and Kyrie Irving, and both say that the Earth is flat."

    • Proper Authority Appeals:

    • When the authority has recognized expertise in the relevant area, e.g., consulting a doctor about health or a lawyer for legal advice.

7.3. Appeal to Force (Latin: Argumentum ad Baculum)

  • Definition: Any attempt to make someone accept a proposition through force or threat; threats do not establish truth.

  • Examples:

    • Company policy stating: “Either it’s perfect (100%) or we failed (99% or less). Anyone who doesn’t support this will be fired."

    • Threatening to burn down a theatre if a preferred play is not performed is also an appeal to force.

  • Distinction:

    • Important to differentiate between an appeal to force and merely stating possible consequences of actions.

7.4. Appeal to Emotion

  • Definition: Attempts to make someone accept a proposition by exploiting their emotions; often manifests as an appeal to pity (Latin: Argumentum ad Misericordiam).

  • Key Insight: Emotions alone do not establish truth; they assist in prompting interpretations but do not guarantee sound arguments.

  • Examples:

    • "The defendant should not be found guilty because her life has been filled with abuse and hardships."

    • Emotional affirmations such as "Search your feelings, you know it to be true!" are also classic examples.

7.5. Appeal to Tradition (Latin: Argumentum ad Antiquitatem)

  • Definition: This fallacy cites historical preferences or practices as evidence for correctness.

  • Key Point: The age of something does not determine its truth or falsity.

  • Examples:

    • Eating turkey at Thanksgiving because it’s a family tradition.

    • Cutting off the top of a broom handle because it has always been done that way.

  • Considerations: Not every tradition is invalidated simply because it is old; some have valid significance.

7.6. Appeal to Novelty (Latin: Argumentum ad Novitatem)

  • Definition: Claims that newness or modernity of something implies its truth and superiority.

  • Examples:

    • Assuming string theory must be true because it is a recent development in physics.

    • New Star Wars movies are better than older ones just because they utilize modern techniques.