AP Human Geography Exam Notes

Unit 1: Thinking Geographically

Types of Maps (Topic 1.1)

• Maps can be reference or thematic.

  • Cartogram: Distorts land area to represent a value.

  • Choropleth: Uses colors/shades to represent a value.

  • Dot: Uses the density of dots to represent a value; more dots indicate a higher value.

  • Graduated Symbol: Uses symbol size to represent a value; larger symbols indicate higher values.

  • Isoline: Uses lines to connect areas with the same value.

Spatial Patterns (Topic 1.1)

• Spatial patterns include absolute and relative distance and direction, clustering, dispersal, and elevation.

  • Absolute Distance: Precise measurement using a standard unit.

    • Example: "It takes exactly 5.9 miles to drive to duPont Manual High School from Louisville Male."

  • Absolute Direction: Uses cardinal directions (North, South, East, West).

    • Example: "duPont Manual is southwest of Ralph Wright Natatorium."

  • Relative Distance: Imprecise measurement.

    • Example: "It takes about 25 minutes from White Blossom Neighborhood to duPont Manual High School."

  • Relative Direction: Imprecise directional terms like left/right and up/down.

    • Example: "If you walk out towards the courtyard of duPont Manual and walk left about a block, you can find Cardinal Towne."

  • Clustering: Grouping of similar people or items.

    • Example: Students with similar scores grouped together for exams.

  • Dispersal: Spacing of people or items within geographic population barriers.

    • Example: Students assigned to different high schools despite living nearby.

  • Elevation: Altitude above sea level or ground.

    • Example: "Mount Everest's elevation is 8,848 meters above sea level."

Map Projections (Topic 1.1)

• All maps are selective; projections distort spatial relationships in shape, area, distance, and direction (SADD).

  • Robinson Projection:

    • Benefits: Globe-like; accurately shows most sizes, distances, and shapes.

    • Purpose: Commonly used in schools and atlases.

    • Distortion/Limitations: Less accurate at poles; imprecise measurements cannot be used for navigation.

  • Mercator Projection:

    • Benefits: Shows true direction; good for navigation; 90° angles and straight lines of longitude & latitude.

    • Purpose: Best map for nautical use; poles appear larger.

    • Distortion/Limitations: Distorts area (Greenland and Africa appear similar in size); areas get larger with latitude; size distorted at poles; associated with marginalization of Africa.

  • Gall-Peters Projection:

    • Benefits: Shows true direction; area is relatively accurate; not much distortion of continents (land size preserved).

    • Purpose: Used for navigation & world Maps.

    • Distortion/Limitations: Continents look elongated; distorts oceans and shape.

  • Polar (Azimuthal) Projections:

    • Benefits: Shown from the north pole; preserves direction; distances from the center (poles) are preserved.

    • Purpose: Used by airplane pilots for navigation; emblem on the United Nations flag.

    • Distortion/Limitations: Distorts parallels of latitude, shape, and area; only shows half of the earth.

Geographic Data (Topic 1.2)

• Data may be gathered in the field by organizations or individuals.

• Geospatial technologies include:

  • Geographic Information Systems (GIS):

    • Definition: Computer system that scans geographic areas and compiles data through specific layers.

    • Purpose: Helps visualize and organize spatial patterns and relationships; helps governments and businesses find positive and negative characteristics of areas.

    • Examples: Tracks deforestation in Nigeria; identifies sites for schools in Kenya.

  • Remote Sensing Systems:

    • Definition: Detecting and monitoring physical characteristics of an area using remote-controlled technologies (satellites, aircraft).

    • Purpose: Collects information over large areas; monitors hard-to-explore areas; informs people with fast and accurate information.

    • Examples: Satellite monitoring and tracking hurricanes; aircraft scans of an island.

  • Satellite Navigation Systems:

    • Definition: System that uses satellites to provide geospatial positioning using longitude and latitude.

    • Purpose: Provides maps on phones; helps drivers find optimal pathways.

    • Examples: Using GPS to get to a location; entering the quickest path to a destination on a phone.

• Spatial information can come from written accounts:

  • Field Observations:

    • Definition: Observing a specific person or group in their environment.

    • Information Outcomes: Land use; patterns in settlement; workplace environments.

  • Personal Interviews:

    • Definition: A person explaining his or her observations.

    • Information Outcomes: Visual explanations; economic patterns.

  • Policy Documents:

    • Definition: Official papers specifying rules and regulations.

    • Information Outcomes: Safety measurements; accessibility requirements.

  • Photographic Interpretation:

    • Definition: Studying photographs to identify patterns.

    • Information Outcomes: Differentiation of land use; agricultural practices; settlement patterns.

  • Media Reports:

    • Definition: Communication from the media to a consumer or listener.

    • Information Outcomes: People's interactions; issues at all scales; land use.

  • Travel Narratives:

    • Definition: First-hand accounts written in a document.

    • Information Outcomes: Eye-witness accounts; social patterns; land use.

  • Landscape Analysis:

    • Definition: Studying land use and interactions with humans and the environment.

    • Information Outcomes: Land use; agricultural practices; infrastructure sustainability.

The Power of Geographic Data (Topic 1.3)

• Geospatial and geographical data are used at all scales for decision-making.

  • Geographic Data: Data associated with a specific location.

    • Government: Mapping flu activity; mapping homelessness.

    • Business: Demographics for marketing strategies; floodplain maps for insurance rates.

    • Personal: Crime rates and walkability for housing choices; housing prices for selling decisions.

    • Organizational: Mapping Native American lands; disaster response.

  • Geospatial Data: Time-based data related to a location.

    • Government: Managing programs; evaluating policy outcomes.

    • Business: Knowing community influence; improving logistics.

    • Personal: Identifying patterns; assessing trends; making data-driven decisions.

    • Organizational: Value creation.

• Methods of Data Collection:

  • Census Data (demographics, population, income).

  • Remote Sensing (satellite imagery).

  • OpenStreetMap: Map-making network.

Spatial Concepts (Topic 1.4)

• Spatial concepts include absolute and relative location, space, place, flows, distance decay, time-space compression, and pattern.

• Density: Number of things in a given area.

• Pattern: The way things are arranged in a place; influenced by settlement history and needs.

• Location: Position of a point or object on Earth.

  • Absolute Location: Exact location, expressed by coordinates (e.g., Louisville: 38.2527°N, 85.7585°W).

  • Relative Location: Describing a place in relation to others (e.g., Louisville: South of the Ohio River).

• Site: Absolute location/physical characteristics (landforms, climate, resources).

• Situation: How a place is affected by its surroundings (transportation systems, political relationships, cultural connections).

• Distance Decay: The farther things are from one another, the less they interact.

• Time-Space Compression: Relative distance shrinks due to modern transportation and technology.

Human-Environmental Interaction (Topic 1.5)

• Concepts include sustainability, natural resources, and land use.

• Theories have evolved from environmental determinism to possibilism.

  • Environmental Determinism: Environment determines human society characteristics.

  • Possibilism: Human societies are influenced by the environment but not controlled by it; technology allows alteration of the environment.

• Sustainability addresses providing for society today and future generations.

• Key issues are natural resources and land use.

Scale of Analysis (Topic 1.6)

• Scales include global, regional, national, and local.

• Patterns and processes at different scales reveal variations and different data interpretations.

Regional Analysis (Topic 1.7)

• Regions are defined on unifying characteristics or activity patterns; human constructs.

• Types: formal, functional, and perceptual/vernacular.

• Regional boundaries are transitional and often contested and overlapping.

  • Formal (Uniform): Common attribute (e.g., religion, ethnicity, climate).

    • Example: European Union, Spanish-speaking regions in the U.S.

  • Functional (Nodal): Grouped around a central point or node (e.g., city hall, airport).

    • Example: Pizza Hut delivery zones, New York City as a global node.

  • Vernacular (Perceptual): Grouped by feelings or attitudes.

    • Example: The Midwest, The Middle East.

Unit 2: Population and Migration Patterns and Processes

Factors Impacting Population Distribution (Topic 2.1)

• Physical (climate, landforms, water bodies) and human (culture, economics, history, politics) factors influence population distribution.

• Distribution patterns include:

  • Uniform: evenly spaced.

  • Linear: Spaced in a line.

  • Clustered: Organized in groups or around a point.

  • Random: No visible order.

Population Density (Topic 2.1)

• Methods include arithmetic, physiological, and agricultural.

  • Arithmetic Density: Total people per unit area of land.

  • Physiological Density: Total population per amount of arable land.

  • Agricultural Density: Total number of farmers per unit of arable land.

• Each method reveals different information about population pressure on the land.

Consequences of Population Distribution (Topic 2.2)

• Affects political, economic, and social processes.

• Impacts the environment and natural resources; relates to carrying capacity.

• Political: Clustered populations have more political influence.

• Economic: More people = greater need for jobs.

• Social: Clustered population = more efficient services.

• Environment: More people = more strain on resources.

• Overpopulation refers to exceeding carrying capacity.

• Malthus discussed preventative and positive checks on population.

Population Composition (Topic 2.3)

• Patterns of age structure and sex ratio vary across regions.

• Population pyramids assess population growth and decline and predict markets.

Factors in Population Growth and Decline (Topic 2.4)

• Demographic factors are fertility, mortality, and migration.

• Development influences fertility, mortality, immigration, and emigration.

Measuring Population Growth and Decline (Topic 2.4)

• Use the rate of natural increase (RNI) and population-doubling time (DT).

• $RNI = CBR - CDR$

• $DT = 70 / RNI$

• Factors influencing population change: economic, political, environmental, social/cultural.
  *

Demographic Transition Model (DTM) (Topic 2.5)

• Explains population change over time.

• The epidemiological transition explains causes of changing death rates.

Malthusian Theory (Topic 2.6)

• Thomas Malthus's ideas and critiques are used to analyze population change and its consequences.

• Key figures in this discussion are Malthus, Neo-Malthusians, Ester Boserup, and Cornucopians.

• Malthus:

  • Population growth leads to poverty and misery.

  • Positive Checks: Reduce population; famine, disease.

  • Preventative Checks: Actions to prevent population growth.

Population Policies (Topic 2.7)

• Types: pronatalist, antinatalist, and immigration policies.

• Anti-natalist policies discourage having children (e.g., China’s former One Child Policy).

• Pro-natalist policies encourage having children (e.g., free childcare).

• Immigration policies regulate migration into a country.

Women & Demographic Change (Topic 2.8)

• Changing social values and access to education, employment, healthcare, and contraception have reduced fertility rates.

• Changing roles for females have influenced patterns of fertility, mortality, and migration.

• Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration related to women have been updated.

Aging Populations (Topic 2.9)

• Population aging is determined by birth and death rates and life expectancy.

• An aging population has political, social, and economic consequences, including the dependency ratio.

• Dependency Ratio: $(Under 15 years old + Over 64 years old)/ (15-64 years old)$

Causes of Migration (Topic 2.10)

• Divided into push and pull factors.

• Factors can be economic, social, cultural, political, or environmental.

• Economic:

  • Push: No jobs, low wages.

  • Pull: More jobs, higher pay.

• Social: demographic and cultural.

• Political: Instability, war, policy changes.

• Environmental: Drought, natural disasters, climate, soil.

Forced and Voluntary Migration (Topic 2.11)

• Forced migrations include slavery, refugees, IDPs, and asylum seekers.

• Voluntary migrations include transnational, transhumance, internal, chain, step, and guest worker migrations.

• Transhumance: seasonal migration often associated with livestock herding.

Effects of Migration (Topic 2.12)

• Impacts political, economic, and cultural aspects.

• Destination Countries and Countries of Origin have both benefits and losses in the areas: political, economic, and social/cultural.

Unit 3: Cultural Patterns and Processes

Introduction to Culture (Topic 3.1)

• Culture comprises shared practices, technologies, attitudes, and behaviors.

• Cultural traits include food preferences, architecture, and land use.

• Cultural relativism and ethnocentrism are different attitudes toward cultural difference.

Cultural Landscapes (Topic 3.2)

• Cultural landscapes: combinations of physical features, agricultural practices, linguistic and religious characteristics, sequent occupancy, and other expressions of culture.

• Attitudes toward ethnicity and gender shape space use.

• Elements include:

  • Physical Features: vegetation, landforms, soil, climate. ( ex: snowy Vermont)

  • Agricultural/ Industrial Practices: Level of development ( ex: Japan’s rice paddies )

  • Religious And Linguistic Characteristics places of worship, religious clothing.

  • Sequent Occupance The marks people leave throughout time on a place.

  • Traditional And Postmodern Architecture : different building styles.

  • Land Use Patterns What is the land used for? Agriculture? Residential? Transportation?

Cultural Patterns (Topic 3.3)

• Regional patterns of language, religion, and ethnicity contribute to a sense of place and enhance placemaking.

• These factors create centripetal and centrifugal forces.

• Centripetal Forces: One common language, One common ethnicity, One common religion.

• Centrifugal Forces: Multiple languages, Multiple religions , Multiple ethnic groups.

Types of Diffusion (Topic 3.4)

• Types of diffusion include relocation and expansion (contagious, hierarchical, and stimulus).

• Expansion Diffusion:

  • Hierarchical Diffusion: Spread from highest to lowest ranks; can be reverse hierarchical.
    *Contagious Diffusion: The spread of a sensation based on PROXIMITY

  • Stimulus Diffusion: When a sensation is CHANGED based on the area it is spread to.

• Relocation Diffusion:

Historical Causes and Effects of Diffusion (Topic 3.5)

• Interactions between cultural traits and global forces can lead to new expressions; for example, creolization and lingua franca.

• Colonialism, imperialism, and trade helped to shape cultural patterns.

Contemporary Causes and Effects of Diffusion (Topic 3.6)

• Cultural ideas change through processes like urbanization and globalization; influenced by media, technology, politics, economics, and social relationships.

• Communication technologies accelerate interactions and change cultural practices.

Patterns Of Language (Topic 3.7)

• Language families, languages, dialects, world religions, ethnic cultures, and gender roles diffuse from cultural hearths.

• Language: Oral/written communication system w/grammar & vocabulary.
  *Highlights culture di erences & where certain languages are spoken.

• Dialect: REGIONAL variation of a STANDARD language distinguished by word choice, spelling, pronunciation, and degree of rapidity in speech.
  *Language family: LARGEST LANGUAGE GROUPING & share an ancestral language.

• Various language family examples Indo-European , Niger-Congo.

Diffusion of Language (Topic 3.7)

• Hearth:
  *Diffusion:
  Where is it Found Today

Patterns of Religion (Topic 3.7)

• Universalizing religions grow faster and relocate and expansion diffusion.

• Ethnic religions grow from relocation diffusion.

Diffusion of Religion (Topic 3.7)

• Universalizing religions spread through expansion and relocation diffusion.

• Ethnic religions spread through relocation diffusion.

Effects of Diffusion (Topic 3.8)

• Acculturation, assimilation, syncretism, and multiculturalism are effects of the diffusion of culture.
  Differentiation of those concepts (Acculturation, assimilation, syncretism, and multiculturalism)

Unit 4: Political Patterns and Processes

Intro to Political Geography (Topic 4.1)

• Independent states are the primary building blocks of the world political map.

• Types of political entities include nations, nation-states, stateless nations, multinational states, multistate nations, and autonomous and semiautonomous regions.

Political Processes (Topic 4.2)

• The concepts of sovereignty, nation states, and self-determination shape the contemporary world.

• Colonialism, imperialism, independence movements, and devolution along national lines have influenced contemporary political boundaries.

POLITICAL POWER AND TERRITORIALITY (TOPIC 4.3)

• Political power is expressed geographically as control over people, land, and resources
  *Territoriality is the connection of people, their culture, and their economic systems to the land.

Defining Political Boundaries (Topic 4.4)

• Types include relic, superimposed, subsequent, antecedent, geometric, and consequent boundaries.

The Function of Sea Boundaries (Topic 4.5)

• The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea defines sea rights.

• Maritime boundaries influence national identity and can cause disputes over resources.

The Function of Land Boundaries (Topic 4.5)

• Boundaries are defined, delimited, demarcated, and administered to establish limits of sovereignty, often contested.

• Political boundaries coincide with cultural, economic, national division

Internal Boundaries (4.6)

• Voting districts, redistricting, and gerrymandering affect election results at various scales

• How the process of Census, to Reapportionment, to Redistricting to possible Gerrymandering all affect each other.

Forms of Governance (Topic 4.7)

• Types include unitary and federal states.

• Unitary states have centralized governance; federal states have dispersed power centers.

Defining Devolutionary Factors (Topic 4.8)

• Factors are physical geography, ethnic separatism, ethnic cleansing, terrorism, economic and social problems, and irredentism.

Responses to Devolution (Topic 4.9)

• Devolution occurs when states fragment or disintegrate.

• Includes decentralization and disintegration

Technology’s Role in Challenges to Sovereignty (Topic 4.9)

• Advances in communication technology have facilitated devolution, supranationalism, and democratization.

Challenges to Sovereignty- Supranationalism (Topic 4.9)

Supranationalism- 3 or more countries who work together for a common political, economical, military, or cultural purpose

Consequences of Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces (Topic 4.10)

• Centrifugal forces may lead to failed states, uneven development, stateless nations, and ethnic nationalist movements.

• Centripetal forces can lead to ethnonationalism, equitable development, and increased cultural cohesion.

Unit 5: Agriculture and Rural Land-Use Patterns and Processes

Introduction to Agriculture: Agriculture and Climate (Topic 5.1)

• Agricultural practices are influenced by the physical environment and climatic conditions.

Introduction to Agriculture: Intensive Farming

• Intensive farming practices include market gardening, plantation agriculture, and mixed crop/livestock systems.
  High expenditures of energy and small tracts of land are used to maximize crop yields.

Introduction to Agriculture: Extensive Farming (Topic 5.1)

• Extensive farming practices include shifting cultivation, nomadic herding, and ranching.

Settlement Patterns and Survey Methods (Topic 5.2)

• Specific agricultural practices shape different rural land-use patterns.

• Rural settlement patterns are classified as clustered, dispersed, or linear.

• Rural survey methods include metes and bounds, township, and range, and long lot.

Agricultural Origins (Topic 5.3)

• Early hearths of plant and animal domestication arose in the Fertile Crescent and other regions, including the Indus River Valley, Southeast Asia, and Central America.

Agricultural Diffusion (Topic 5.3)

• Patterns of diffusion, such as the Columbian Exchange and the agricultural revolutions, resulted in the global spread of various plants and animals.

The Second Agricultural Revolution (Topic 5.4)

• New technology and increased food production led to better diets, longer life expectancy, and more people for work in factories.

The Third Agricultural Revolution: The Green Revolution (Topic 5.5)

• The Green Revolution was characterized by high-yield seeds, increased use of chemicals, and mechanized farming.

• Had positive and negative consequences for humans and the environment.

Agricultural Production Regions (5.6)

• Agricultural production regions are defined by subsistence or commercial practices.

• Intensive and extensive farming practices are determined in part by land costs (bid-rent theory).

Spatial Organization of Agriculture {Topic 5.7}

complex commodity chains connect production and consumption.

Von Thunen Model (Topic 5.8)

Von Thünen’s model helps to explain rural land use by emphasizing the importance of transportation.

The Global System of Agriculture (Topic 5.9)

Food and other agricultural products are part of a global supply chain. Some countries have become highly dependent on one or more export commodities.

Consequences of Agricultural Practices Topic 5.10

Agricultural Landscapes : land changing due to the interactions between agricultural practices and the environment.

Challenges of Contemporary Agriculture: Innovations (Topic 5.11)

•Agricultural innovations such as biotechnology, genetically modified organisms, and aquaculture have been debate.

Challenges of Contemporary Agriculture: Movements (Topic 5.11)

• Food production and consumption patterns are influenced by movements related to individual choice.
  *Sustainable Food System

Women in Agriculture (Topic 5.12)

Varies in many places depending on the type of production involved.   (Topic 5.12)

Unit 6: Cities and Urban Land-Use Patterns and Processes

The Origin and Influences of Cities: Site and Situation (Topic 6.1)

• Site and situation influence the origin, function, and growth of cities.

The Origin and Influences of Cities: Transportation and Communication (Topic 6.1)

Processes of suburbanization, sprawl, and decentralization have created new land-use forms.

Cities Around The World: Growth In City Land Area (6.2)

Megacities and metacities are distinct spatial outcomes of urbanization.

Cities and Globalization [Topic 6.3]

World cities function at the top of the world’s urban hierarchy and drive globalization.

The Size and Distribution of Cities: Gravity Model and Central Place Theory (Topic 6.4)

Principles that are useful for explaining the distribution and size of cities.

The Internal Structure of Cities: North American Models (Topic 6.5)

• Models and theories that are useful for explaining internal structures of cities

The Internal Structure of Cities: Models Outside North America (Topic 6.5)

Models Outside North America Models and theories that are useful for explaining internal strucures

Density and Land Use (Topic 6.6)

Residential buildings and patterns of land use reflect and shape the city’s culture.

Infrastructure (Topic 6.7)

The location and quality of a city’s infrastructure directly affects its spatial patterns.

Urban Sustainability: Initiatives (Topic 6.8)

• Sustainable design initiatives and zoning practices include mixed land use, walkability, and transportation-oriented development.

Topic 6.8: Urban Sustainability: Praise and Criticism

Different societal factor contribute or challenge sustainabilty.

Urban Data (Topic 6.9)

Census and survey data provide information about changes in population and size.

Challenges of Urban Changes: Movement Within The City (Topic 6.10)

• Challenges related to housing and discrimination, access to services, rising crime rates, environmental injustice, and disamenity zones occur.

Challenges of Urban Changes: Urban Renewal and Gentrification (Topic 6.10)

• Urban renewal and gentrification have both positive and negative consequences.

Challenges of Urban Changes: Movement to the City (Topic 6.10)

• Rural to urban migration are cause due to industrial factors and opportunities.
  *Migration into a city creates population increase/growth.

Challenges of Urban Sustainability (Topic 6.11)

• Challenges to urban sustainability include urban sprawl, sanitation, climate change, air and water quality, the large ecological footprint of cities, and energy use.

Unit 7: Industrial & Economic Development Patterns and Processes

The Industrial Revolution (Topic 7.1)

• Industrialization began due to new technologies and natural resources.

• As it spread, food supplies increased, populations grew, and workers sought industrial jobs.

• Investors sought raw materials and new markets, contributing to colonialism and imperialism.

Economic Sectors (Topic 7.2)

Different industry activities are grouped into five total Economic sectors to make service easier to grasp. . Types: primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary, and quinary

Economic Patterns of Location (Topic 7.2)

Factors of Location Labor, transportation (including shipping containers), the break-of-bulk point, least cost theory, markets, and resources .Where: the location of manufacturing. including core, semiperiphery, and peripher

Topic 7.3 Measures of Development: Social and Economic

SPS-7.C.1 Measures of social and economic development include Gross Domestic Product (GDP); Gross National Product (GNP); and Gross National Income (GNI) per capita.

Measures of Development: Gender Inequality Measure of gender inequality ,such as;health, indices of empowerment, and labor-market participation.

Women and Economic Development - Topic 7.4

• The roles of women change as countries develop economically.

• Although there are more women in the workforce, they do not have equity in wages or employment opportunities.

Theories of Development (Topic 7.5)

• Different theories, such as Rostow's Stages of Economic Growth, Wallerstein's World System Theory, and dependency theory, help explain spatial variations in development.

Trade and the World Economy: Government Trade Policies (Topic 7.6)

Government initiatives at all scales may affect economic development, including tariffs.

Changes as a Result of the World Economy: Shifting Sectors (Topic 7.7)

• Outsourcing and economic restructuring have led to a decline in jobs in core regions and an increase in jobs in newly industrialized countries.

*SPS-7.A.6 * Contemporary Economic landscape has been transformed methods of production, multiplierEffects, economies of scale, Agglomeration.

Sustainable Development (Topic 7.8)

Sustainable development is policies that attempt to remedy problems.. Ecotourism