History of the Modern Romanian State and the Great Union of 1918

The Phanariot Regime and Initial Political Projects for Modernization

The foundation of the modern Romanian state evolved through a period of transition starting from the Phanariot regime, which the Ottoman Empire established in Moldova in $1711$ and in Wallachia in $1716$. During this time, the traditional native rulers (domnitorii pământeni) were replaced by Phanariots from the Fanar district of Constantinople. This era was characterized by several negative aspects that hindered development, most notably the significant reduction of the autonomy of the Romanian Principalities relative to the Ottoman Empire and a sharp increase in financial obligations. These burdens included the purchase of the throne, the annual tribute, as well as specific taxes such as the "peschesh" and "mucarer."

Dissatisfied with these deteriorating conditions, Romanian boyars belonging to the National Party began drafting the first Romanian political projects. These projects consisted of memoranda addressed to the representatives of the Great Powers during various diplomatic negotiations, requesting the political reorganization of the Principalities. The consistent characteristics of these projects were the desire for the modernization of the state, the restoration of native reigns, and the union of Moldova with Wallachia.

Specific examples of these early projects include the $1772$ Memorandum of Focșani, where a joint delegation of Moldavian and Wallachian boyars requested the return to native reigns, the respect of autonomy, and the union of the two principalities under the protection of Russia, Austria, and Prussia. Later, during the $1791$ negotiations at Șiștov, the Divan of Wallachia addressed Russian and Austrian delegates to request the return to native reigns, autonomy, and neutrality under Austrian and Russian guarantees. They also demanded the abolition of all financial obligations to the Ottoman Empire with the exception of the tribute, the freedom of trade, and the dismantling of the "raiale," which were territories directly occupied and administered by Turkish military authorities. Another key document from $1791$ was the "Supplex Libellus Valachorum," which focused on the rights of Romanians in Transylvania. Despite their comprehensive nature, these boyar memoranda did not receive immediate implementation.

Revolutionary Movements and Constitutional Foundations in the 19th Century

The revolutionary movement of $1821$, led by Tudor Vladimirescu, served as a critical context for modernization. It was partially influenced by the "Eteria" (Filiki Eteria), a secret revolutionary organization led by Alexandru Ipsilanti that aimed to liberate Greece through a general Balkan uprising. Tudor Vladimirescu, the leader of the pandurs, coordinated with three major Wallachian boyars to organize a revolution. In January $1821$, the "Proclamația de la Padeș" called for a struggle against foreign leadership and the abolition of all types of taxes and privileges. This was followed by the document-program "Cererile norodului românesc" (The Demands of the Romanian People), which called for merit-based appointments, trade freedom, the creation of a national army, the reduction of Greek boyars in the Divan to only $4$, the payment of taxes by previously exempt social categories, and the modernization of legislation. Although Tudor was assassinated in May $1821$ at Târgoviște by his Eterist allies, his movement successfully led to the restoration of native reigns in $1822$.

Following the revolution, Ionică Tăutu drafted the "Constituția cărvunarilor" (Constitution of the Carbonari) in $1822$, comprising $77$ articles that proposed limiting the ruler's power through an Assembly (Sfatul Obștesc), the separation of powers, autonomy from the Porte, and civil rights. While Prince Ioan Sandu Sturdza accepted it, the project failed due to opposition from Russia and the Ottoman Empire. Subsequently, the $1826$ Convention of Akkerman between Russia and the Ottoman Empire put into practice several Romanian demands, such as electing rulers from among the native boyars (with the Porte retaining only confirmation rights) and establishing the freedom of trade and navigation on the Danube.

Between $1831$ and $1832$, the first acts with constitutional character, known as the Organic Regulations, were introduced—one for Wallachia ($1831$) and one for Moldova ($1832$). These were drafted by two commissions of boyars based on recommendations from St. Petersburg and approved by Russia. Positive provisions included the birth of a judicial corps of lawyers, judges, and prosecutors, reforms in education, the creation of a state budget, and the granting of common citizenship to the residents of both principalities. They also introduced the principle of the separation of powers, where the executive power was held for life by the prince, the legislative power was held by the Public Assembly (Adunarea Obștească), and the judicial power resided in courts, appeals courts, and the High Princely Divan. However, they carried negative traits, such as maintaining feudal-type privileges for boyars and omitting civil rights and liberties. These regulations remained in force until $1858$.

The 1848 Revolutions: The Spring of Nations

The year $1848$ was a pivotal moment for European and Romanian history, often referred to as the "Spring of Nations." The Romanian revolution was the work of young pașoptiști intellectuals of the boyar class who had studied abroad and sought to apply liberal ideas in the Principalities. In Moldova, Vasile Alecsandri drafted the "Petițiunea-Proclamațiune" in March $1848$ at the Petersburg Hotel in Iași. The program demanded respect for the Organic Regulations, merit-based appointments, the abolition of censorship, the improvement of the peasants' lot, the creation of a citizen guard, and the election of a new Public Assembly. Prince Mihail Sturdza rejected two demands—the guard and the new assembly—and arrested the revolutionaries, some of whom escaped to Transylvania to draft the more radical "Prințipiile noastre pentru reformarea patriei" in Brașov, which explicitly proposed the union of Wallachia and Moldova.

In Transylvania, the movement focused on national rights. In May $1848$, Simion Bărnuțiu drafted the "Petiția Națională," which was read to a crowd of over $40,000$ people at the Field of Liberty in Blaj. This occurred after the Hungarian Diet voted for the forced annexation of Transylvania to Hungary. The petition demanded the rejection of this annexation, official recognition of the two Romanian churches, administrative autonomy, agrarian reform, and education in the Romanian language across all levels. Meanwhile, in Wallachia, the "Proclamația de la Islaz" of June $1848$, drafted by Ion Heliade-Rădulescu, sought the removal of foreign dominance, administrative and legislative independence, civil rights, and the distribution of land to peasants through compensation. Although the revolutions ultimately failed due to military intervention by the Ottoman, Habsburg, and Russian Empires, they successfully spread ideas of freedom and modernization that paved the way for the Little Union of $1859$.

The Reign of Alexandru Ioan Cuza and the Foundation of the Modern State

The path to union was accelerated by the Crimean War ($1853$-$1856$), which ended in a defeat for Russia. The $1856$ Treaty of Paris placed the Principalities under the collective guarantee of the Great Powers, forced Russia to return southern Bessarabia (the counties of Cahul, Bolgrad, and Ismail) to Moldova, and mandated ad-hoc assemblies to consult Romanians on union. In $1857$, these assemblies called for the union of the Principalities into a state named "România," the installment of a foreign prince from a European dynasty who would raise his descendants in the Orthodox faith, and the respect of autonomy. In $1858$, the Convention of Paris was adopted as a constitution, creating the "United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia" with two rulers, two governments, two assemblies, but shared institutions in Focșani (the Central Commission and the High Court of Cassation).

Exploiting the Convention's omission regarding the identity of the rulers, Alexandru Ioan Cuza was elected prince of Moldova on $5$ January $1859$ and prince of Wallachia on $24$ January $1859$. This "accomplished fact" strategy forced international recognition of the union. In $1862$, the formal title of the state became "România," and in $1863$, Mihail Kogălniceanu was appointed Prime Minister. Following a coup d'état in $1864$, Cuza introduced a new constitution—"Statutul Dezvoltător al Convenției de la Paris"—increasing his powers and creating a bicameral parliament. His internal policy established Bucharest as the capital, created the Ministry of War, adopted a new coat of arms featuring the eagle and the bison, and unified the customs, telegraph, and currency services.

Four major reforms defined Cuza's reign. The Law for the Secularization of Monastic Estates ($1863$) transferred approximately $1/4$ of the country's arable land from the church to the state. The Rural Law (Agrarian Reform) of August $1864$ divided peasants into three categories based on the number of cattle: "fruntași" (more than $2$ draft cattle, receiving approx. $4$ hectares), "mijlocași" ($1$-$2$ draft cattle, approx. $2$ hectares), and "pălmași" (no cattle, receiving no land). Over $500,000$ families received land, but they had to pay compensation over $15$ years and could not sell the land for $30$ years. The Public Instruction Law ($1864$) made primary education free and compulsory, structuring education into primary ($4$ years), secondary ($7$ years), and university ($3$ years) cycles, and saw the founding of universities in Iași and Bucharest. Finally, the Electoral Reform of $1864$ lowered the property census, dividing voters into direct voters (paying $4$ galbeni in tax, literate, at least $25$ years old) and primary voters (at least $30$ years old, voting via delegates). Cuza was forced to abdicate in $1866$ by the "Monstruoasa coaliție" (Monstrous Coalition) of conservatives and radical liberals. This led to the arrival of Prince Carol I of the German Hohenzollern dynasty.

The Conquest of Independence and the Road to the Great War

Prince Carol I adopted the Constitution of $1866$, which defined Romania as a "hereditary constitutional monarchy," signaling an intention for independence from the Ottomans. The "Eastern Crisis" of $1875$-$1876$ provided an opportunity as uprisings broke out in the Balkans. In April $1877$, the Russo-Romanian Convention was signed in Bucharest, allowing Russian troops to transit through Romania on the way to war with the Turks, provided they bypassed Bucharest and Russia paid for all expenses while respecting Romania's territorial integrity. In May $1877$, following Turkish bombardments of Danubian towns, Mihail Kogălniceanu and Carol I declared independence in Parliament on May $9$, stating: "Suntem independenţi, suntem o națiune de sine stătătoare." The tribute intended for the Porte was redirected to the army.

Romano-Russian forces engaged in the Siege of Plevna, where Osman Pasha held a fortification with $30,000$ Turkish soldiers. Archduke Nicholas of Russia requested help from the Romanian army, and Carol I took command of the combined forces, employing a strategy of encirclement and cutting off supply lines. On $28$ November $1877$, Osman Pasha surrendered. The war ended with the Treaty of San Stefano in March $1878$, which recognized the independence of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro, but forced Romania into a territorial exchange. This was finalized at the Congress of Berlin in July $1878$. Romania received Dobrogea, the Danube Delta, and Snake Island from the Ottoman Empire but was forced to cede Southern Bessarabia (Cahul, Bolgrad, Ismail) to Russia. Additionally, Romania had to modify Article $7$ of its Constitution to grant citizenship regardless of religion.

In subsequent decades, Romania's political landscape solidified with the creation of the National Liberal Party (PNL) in $1875$ (led by Ion C. Brătianu and promoting development "through ourselves") and the Conservative Party (PC) in $1880$ (led by Manolache Costache Epureanu and Lascăr Catargiu, promoting "small steps"). In $1881$, Romania became a Kingdom, and in $1883$, it secretly joined the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) to secure its borders. When World War I broke out in $1914$ following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, Romania initially declared neutrality at the Crown Council of Sinaia, despite Carol I's pro-German stance. After Carol I died and was succeeded by Ferdinand I, Prime Minister Ionel Brătianu negotiated with the Entente for two years. On $14$ August $1916$, Romania joined the Entente, which promised Transylvania, Banat, and Bucovina, and pledged $300$ tons of ammunition daily along with an offensive from Thessaloniki.

The Climax of the Great War and the Realization of the Great Union

Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary on $27$ August $1816$ and advanced into Transylvania, but was soon pushed back by the Central Powers, losing Bucharest and retreating to northern Moldova. In $1917$, the army reorganized and secured major victories at Mărăști, Mărășești, and Oituz. Romanian participation officially ended as Germany capitulated on $11$ November $1918$, but not before Romania re-entered the war on $10$ November $1918$ to ensure its standing at the peace table. The fallout of the war saw the collapse of the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian Empires, the death or disappearance of approximately $20,000,000$ people, and the rise of extremist ideologies like Nazism and Fascism.

The creation of Great Romania occurred through three specific acts of union. Bessarabia, which had been under Russian rule since $1812$, was the first. After the Russian Empire's collapse in $1917$, the National Moldavian Party and the Sfatul Țării (Country Council) were formed. On $27$ March $1918$, the Sfatul Țării voted for union with Romania. Following this, Bucovina—under Austrian rule since $1775$—held the General Congress of Bucovina in Cernăuți. On $15$ November $1918$, they decided on the "unconditional and forever union" of Bucovina with Romania. Finally, Transylvania—under Habsburg rule since the $XVII^{th}$ century and Austro-Hungarian since $1867$—convened the Great National Assembly at Alba Iulia. On $1$ December $1918$, the assembly, attended by over $1228$ elected delegates and over $100,000$ people, voted for the union.

In $1919$, the first Parliament of Great Romania ratified these unions, and during the Paris Peace Conference ($1819$-$1820$), the Great Union received international recognition. The process was symbolically completed on $15$ October $1922$ in Alba Iulia with the coronation of King Ferdinand I and Queen Maria as sovereigns of Great Romania. The Constitution of $1923$ provided the legal legitimacy for the new state. The benefits of this union were immense: Romania's surface area increased to $295,000\,km^2$, the country experienced significant demographic growth, and the economy and culture underwent rapid development.