Western and Eastern Beginnings of Doing Philosophy

Historical Beginnings of Doing Philosophy

  • The roots of philosophy are historically divided into Western and Eastern beginnings, serving as the foundational attempts to understand the nature of existence and the world.
  • The formal beginning of Western philosophy is traced back to Ancient Greece during the 6th6^{th} century BCE.
  • This period marked a transition in human thought, moving from mythological or religious accounts of reality toward more rational and systematic explanations.
  • The early focus of these thinkers was on two primary areas:
    • Cosmology: The study of the origin, evolution, and eventual fate of the universe.
    • Cosmogony: The scientific or philosophical study of the origin of the universe.
  • These early thinkers are collectively known as the Pre-Socratics because they predated the philosophical shift brought about by Socrates.

The Pre-Socratic Philosophers: Seeking the Fundamental Substance

  • Despite their varying conclusions, all Pre-Socratic philosophers shared the same objective: answering the fundamental question, "What is the universe really made of, and how does it work?"

  • Thales of Miletus

    • Recognized as the 1st1^{st} known Western Philosopher.
    • He was a multi-disciplinary figure, described as a wise mathematician, astronomer, engineer, and statesman.
    • Thales proposed that water (or moisture) is the single, fundamental substance that accounts for the entire universe.
    • His method involved observing nature and attempting to explain its mechanics through reasoning rather than supernatural myth.

  • Anaximander

    • He was a student of Thales.
    • He proposed a more abstract concept called the Apeiron (which translates to the Boundless, infinite, or unlimited) as the fundamental substance.
    • He argued that everything in existence originates from this limitless and undefined source.

  • Anaximenes

    • He identified air as the fundamental substance of reality.
    • He believed air is divine and undergoes various transformations to create different things.
    • The boundless nature of air implies that it is dynamic, ever-shifting, and in a state of perpetual motion.
    • He held the belief that the human soul is "airy" in nature.

  • Pythagoras

    • He believed that numbers and mathematical relationships are the true and ultimate foundation of the universe.
    • For Pythagoras, reality could be understood entirely through mathematical patterns.

  • Heraclitus

    • He identified fire as the fundamental substance of the cosmos.
    • His philosophy centered on the idea that change is the fundamental nature of reality; the world is in a constant state of flux.

  • Parmenides

    • In direct contrast to Heraclitus, Parmenides argued that change is an illusion.
    • He maintained that reality is one, eternal, and unchanging.
    • His logic dictated that if something truly exists, it cannot cease to exist or suddenly transform into something else.

  • Empedocles

    • He proposed a pluralistic view that everything in the universe is composed of four basic elements: earth, water, air, and fire.
    • He argued that these elements themselves are immutable (do not change), but they combine and separate in various proportions to create the objects perceived in the world.

  • Anaxagoras

    • He believed that everything contains a portion of everything else.
    • The universe consists of countless microscopic particles or "seeds" that combine in different proportions to form distinct objects.
    • He introduced the concept of Nous, meaning "Mind" or "Intelligence," as the organizing force of the universe.

  • Leucippus and Democritus

    • These thinkers developed the theory of atomism.
    • They argued that everything in existence consists of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.

The Golden Age of Greek Philosophy

  • This era represented a major shift in focus from the physical universe (the cosmos) to human behavior, ethics, and the nature of knowledge.

  • Socrates

    • He pivoted philosophy toward understanding morals and human conduct.
    • He emphasized intellectual humility and moral integrity.
    • He is famous for the Socratic Method, which is the art of questioning to elicit deeper insights or expose contradictions.
    • He famously stated, "I know that I know nothing."

  • Plato

    • He was the most famous student of Socrates.
    • He established a formal school of thought called the Academy in Athens.
    • He developed the Theory of Forms, which suggests that the material world we experience is merely an imperfect copy of a perfect, ideal, and permanent world.
    • His notable literary works include The Republic and the Allegory of the Cave.
    • He championed the idea of the "philosopher king" as the ideal political leader.

  • Aristotle

    • He was a student of Plato but diverged from his teacher’s idealism.
    • He believed that knowledge is derived from observation and empirical experience.
    • He founded his own school called the Lyceum.
    • He referred to Metaphysics as the "first philosophy" and considered it the highest form of knowledge.

Western Philosophy After Ancient Greece

  • Scholasticism

    • Developed during the medieval period (approximately between the 9th9^{th} and 15th15^{th} centuries).
    • This school used reason and logic to clarify, defend, and systematize theological truths.
    • Thomas Aquinas is the most prominent scholastic thinker; he attempted to synthesize Christian doctrine with the logic of Aristotelian philosophy.

  • Modern Philosophy

    • Developed between the 17th17^{th} and 19th19^{th} centuries.
    • This era focused on the primacy and power of human reason in addressing human conditions.
    • It split into two major schools of thought:
      1. Rationalism: The belief that true knowledge comes primarily from reason.
      2. Empiricism: The belief that knowledge originates from experience and the senses.
    • René Descartes is a central figure of this era, known for the Latin phrase "Cogito, ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am").
    • Immanuel Kant contributed the concept of the Age of Enlightenment, describing it as the process of freeing oneself from intellectual dependence by finding the courage to think independently.

Contemporary Philosophical Movements

  • Existentialism

    • Focuses on the individual's existence, freedom, choice, and personal responsibility.
    • The core tenet is "existence precedes essence," meaning humans are born first and must then define their own purpose and meaning.
    • Søren Kierkegaard is widely regarded as the "father of existentialism."

  • Phenomenology

    • Founded by Edmund Husserl, this movement focuses on "lived-experience" to describe the structures of consciousness.
    • Phenomenologists do not ask what a thing is objectively; instead, they ask how it appears to human consciousness.
    • This requires suspending judgments and assumptions to focus solely on experience as it presents itself.

  • Analytic Philosophy

    • Emerging in the late 19th19^{th} or early 20th20^{th} century, this school emphasizes clarity, logical reasoning, and precise language.
    • It involves the careful analysis of concepts and arguments.
    • Key figures include Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, G. E. Moore, and Ludwig Wittgenstein.

  • Postmodernism

    • This movement is characterized by deep skepticism toward absolute truths and universal explanations (often called "grand narratives").
    • Postmodernists question the notion that there is a single objective truth or one correct way to understand reality for everyone.