AP European History- Unit 8- Ch. 16-18
Focus Questions
What was the impact of World War I, and what problems did European countries face in the 1920s?
How did France, Great Britain, and the United States respond to the various crises, including the Great Depression, that they faced in the interwar years?
How did World War I affect Europe’s colonies in Asia and Africa?
Why did many European states experience a retreat from democracy in the interwar years?
What are the characteristics of so-called totalitarian states, and to what degree were these characteristics present in Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany, and Stalinist Russia?
What new dimensions in mass culture and mass leisure emerged during the interwar years, and what role did these activities play in Italy, Germany, and the Soviet Union?
What were the main cultural and intellectual trends in the interwar years?
An Uncertain Peace
The Impact of World War I
The Search for Security
Weaknesses of the League of Nations
French policy of coercion (1919-1924)
Desire for strict enforcement of the Treaty of Versailles
Reparations set at $33 billion
German inability to pay in 1922 led to French occupation of the Ruhr Valley
The collapse of the German mark and political unrest
The Hopeful Years (1924-1929)
New conciliatory approaches emerged during this period.
The spirit of Locarno: Treaty of 1925 signified new cooperation and coexistence with Soviet Russia.
The Great Depression:
Causes: Domestic downturn coupled with international crises.
High levels of unemployment resulted in social and political repercussions.
Powerlessness of governments became evident.
The Democratic States in the West
Great Britain
The challenge of the Labour Party presented significant political dynamics.
Inability to effectively solve economic problems.
Coalition government claimed credit for economic recovery.
The push for state intervention inspired by John Maynard Keynes (1883 – 1946).
France
Overall consequences of economic instability demonstrated through the rise of extremist parties.
Formation of the Popular Front and implementation of the French New Deal.
The Scandinavian States
Rise of socialist governments leading to expansion of social services.
High taxes and extensive bureaucracies facilitated these social services.
The United States
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933-1945) characterized by active government intervention in the economy.
The New Deal aimed at relief, recovery, and reform through:
Public works programs.
Despite efforts, the slow recovery reflected ongoing issues with unemployment.
CHRONOLOGY of The Democratic States
Great Britain Events
1924: First Labour Party government.
1924: Conservative Party government.
1926: General strike.
1929-1931: Second Labour Party government.
1931: Beginning of National Government coalition.
France Events
1936: Formation of the Popular Front.
United States Events
1932: Election of Franklin D. Roosevelt.
1933: Beginning of the New Deal.
1935: Second New Deal introduced.
European States and the World: The Colonial Empires
The Middle East
Emergence of new modernizing regimes.
1932: Independent government established in Saudi Arabia.
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881 – 1938) launched reforms leading to a Westernized Turkey.
India
Mahatma Gandhi (1869 – 1948) emerged as a leading figure advocating for rights.
1919: The Amritsar Massacre highlighted the struggle for liberation.
Civil disobedience movements gained traction.
1935: British grant India limited internal self-government.
Africa
Many nations experienced disappointment regarding hopes post-WWI.
Post-war activism surfaced with protests and formation of trade unions in Nigeria and South Africa.
1929: Nigerian women faced violence during protests.
Pan-Africanism flourished with leaders like W. E. B. Du Bois (1868 – 1963), Marcus Garvey (1887 – 1940), and Jomo Kenyatta (1894 – 1978).
The Authoritarian and Totalitarian States
Historians Debate: The Retreat from Democracy
Explored the notion that Europe experienced totalitarian regimes during the interwar years.
New mass electorate spurred radical politics that paved the way for authoritarian leaders.
Issues related to class and gender divisions emerged.
Characteristics of Modern Totalitarian States
Defined by a single leader and a single party with an active commitment of citizens.
Dominance through mass propaganda techniques featuring high-speed communication.
Aimed for total control over all aspects of citizens' lives.
Fascist Italy
The Birth of Fascism
Factors leading to the rise of Fascism: World War I fallout and political instability.
Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) played a pivotal role in forming Fascism.
Formation of the Fascio di Combattimento in 1919.
Combined anti-communism, anti-strike stances, nationalist rhetoric, and brute force.
The Squadristi, armed Fascists, enforced Fascist ideology through violence.
Gained parliamentary seats following these violent uprisings.
March on Rome led to Mussolini's appointment as prime minister on October 29, 1922.
Mussolini and the Italian Fascist State
Established a Fascist dictatorship by 1926 with press laws, police laws, and a complete political monopoly.
Mussolini envisioned a totalitarian state, molding Italian society into a single community.
Inducing youth into Fascist ideology through organizations like Young Fascists.
Family was seen as the cornerstone of his regime; policies favored traditional roles for women.
Compared to Germany or the Soviet Union, Italy's control was less absolute.
The Lateran Accords in February 1929 signified compromises with traditional institutions.
CHRONOLOGY of Fascist Italy
1919: Creation of the Fascio di Combattimento.
1920-1921: Squadristi violence led to a rise in Fascism.
1921: Fascists win thirty-five seats in Parliament.
1922: Mussolini becomes prime minister.
1924: Electoral victory for Fascists.
1925-1926: Establishment of Fascist dictatorship.
1929: Lateran Accords signed with the Catholic Church.
Hitler and Nazi Germany
Weimar Germany
Unresolved political and economic issues persisted after WWI.
Rise of Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) marked by nationalist and racist ideologies.
National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nazi) formed in 1921;
Formation of Sturmabteilung (SA), or Storm Troops for military might.
The Munich Beer Hall Putsch failed in 1923, resulting in Hitler's imprisonment during which he authored Mein Kampf.
Hitler’s New Tactics
Advocated for a lawful takeover of power.
Organization under the Führeprinzip.
Gained electoral success in the Reichstag during the 1932 elections, appealing to middle-class sentiments.
Seizure of power characterized by political maneuvering and innovative election strategies.
Hermann Göring (1893-1946) led organized legal terror to suppress opposition.
The Enabling Act passed in March 1933 centralized Nazi control.
Gleichschaltung was the process of coordinating state institutions under Nazi control, culminating in purges and consolidating power following Hindenburg's death in August 1934.
CHRONOLOGY of Nazi Germany
1919-1923: Hitler's political evolution in Munich.
1923: Beer Hall Putsch occurs; failed coup attempt.
1930: Nazis secure 107 seats in the Reichstag.
January 30, 1933: Hitler is appointed Chancellor.
February 27, 1933: Reichstag Fire incident.
March 23, 1933: Enabling Act passed, allowing Hitler to enact laws without parliament.
June 30, 1934: Purge of the SA occurs.
August 2, 1934: Hindenburg dies; Hitler assumes sole authority.
1935: Nuremberg Laws enacted against Jews.
The Nazi State (1933-1939)
Developing the "Total State"
Designed to unify Aryan racial identity through propaganda and violence.
Economic control efforts leading to reduced unemployment.
Heinrich Himmler led the Schutzstaffeln (SS) as a paramilitary organization.
Control extended to churches and education, shaping youth through organizations like Hitler Jugend and Bund Deutscher Mädel.
Promotion of strong anti-Semitism resulted in legislative measures such as the Nuremberg Laws enacted in September 1935.
The Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass) occurred on November 9-10, 1938, signifying escalating violence against Jews.
The Soviet Union
New Economic Policy
Introduced modified capitalism post-civil war.
The Union of Socialist Republics was established in 1922 to revive the economy.
Political tensions arose as Lenin suffered strokes from 1922-1924, leading to power struggles within the Politburo: Trotsky vs. Stalin.
The Stalinist Era (1929-1939)
Characterized by sweeping social, economic, and political revolutions beginning with the First Five-Year Plan launched in 1928.
Heavy emphasis on industrial growth despite declining real wages.
Rapid collectivization of agriculture led to the famine of 1932-1933, resulting in the deaths of approximately 10 million peasants.
Stalin's dictatorship established in 1929, presiding over a political purge from 1936-1938 where around 8 million were arrested.
CHRONOLOGY of Russia
1921: New Economic Policy begins.
1924: Lenin dies.
1927: Trotsky is expelled from the Communist Party.
1928: First Five-Year Plan begins.
1929: Stalin establishes his dictatorship.
Authoritarianism in Eastern Europe
Post-War Changes
Transition from political democracy to authoritarian regimes in many Eastern European states.
Factors contributing to such shifts included:
Lack of democratic tradition and substantial middle class.
Rural and agrarian societies with existing ethnic conflicts.
Societal fears of instability pushed populations towards seeking order and control.
Dictatorship in the Iberian Peninsula
The Formation of a Spanish Republic
Marked by extreme political instability and turmoil.
A military revolt led by Francisco Franco (1892-1975) resulted in the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), pitting Republicans against Nationalists.
Foreign interventions shaped the outcomes.
The Franco Regime
Franco's dictatorship leaned towards traditionalism.
Portugal experienced similar political dynamics under Antonio Salazar (1889-1970).
CHRONOLOGY of the Authoritarian States in Eastern Europe
Events
1926: Pilsudski creates a military dictatorship in Poland.
1929: Alexander I establishes royal dictatorship in Yugoslavia.
1932: Gömbös becomes Prime Minister in Hungary.
1936: General Metaxas creates a dictatorship in Greece.
1938: Carol II imposes authoritarian rule in Romania after crushing the Iron Guard.
Expansion of Mass Culture and Mass Leisure
The Roaring Twenties
Characterized by a vibrant popular culture including traditional dancing and music.
Emergence of the Jazz Age and rapid proliferation of radio and movies.
New broadcasting facilities led to a mass audience engagement.
Movies became a form of immediate shared experiences that were occasionally utilized for political propagation, such as in Triumph of the Will (1934).
Mass Leisure Activities
Sports and tourism expanded; commercial air service became a viable option.
Organized state-sponsored leisure activities were promoted in Italy and Germany through agencies such as Kraft durch Freude (Strength Through Joy) in Nazi Germany.
These initiatives contributed to a sense of national homogeneity among populations.
Cultural and Intellectual Trends in the Interwar Years
Impact of World War I
A resurgence of avant-garde ideas post-war was observed across various artistic movements.
Notable artistic movements included:
German Expressionism, depicting the horrors of war.
The Dada Movement, which rejected traditional aesthetics.
Prominent figures such as Tristan Tzara (1896 – 1945) emerged.
Surrealism, notably Salvador Dali (1904 – 1989), explored the unconscious.
Functionalism in Modern Architecture
The Bauhaus School in Germany led the charge in new architectural styles reflecting modernism.
Artists engaged actively in new mass culture, further pushing avant-garde ideas into public consciousness.
Resistance to Oppressive Aesthetics
The culture of Nazism exhibited hostility towards what they termed “degenerate” art, aiming to reshape public art forms.
Ernst Jünger published The Storm of Steel, capturing the war's trauma.
The Search for the Unconscious
Literature and Psychology
The literary style “stream-of-consciousness” emerged, exemplified by works like Ulysses by James Joyce (1882-1941).
Hermann Hesse (1877-1962) delved into existential themes.
Psychological theories by Carl Jung (1856-1961) continued the exploration begun by Freud, emphasizing states of consciousness and concepts such as the personal unconscious and collective unconscious.
The “Heroic Age of Physics”
Advances in Physics
The pre-war scientific revolution continued, with great strides attributed to figures such as Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) who executed the first atom-splitting.
Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976) formulated the “uncertainty principle,” fundamentally altering metaphysical approaches in science.
Discussion Questions
What were the causes of the Great Depression?
What security concerns did France express after the Great War? How did these affect Germany?
What characteristics defined Nazi Germany?
What characteristics defined Stalin’s Soviet Union?
Describe the art trends of the period and their lasting effects on society.
How did totalitarian governments manipulate art for ideological purposes?
Focus Questions Regarding World War II and the Cold War
What were Hitler’s foreign policy aims and actions between 1933 and 1939?
How did Japan’s policies lead to conflict in Asia?
Major events of WWII and why the Allies prevailed.
Describe the organization of the Nazi empire and intricacies of the Holocaust.
Home front conditions for Japan and major Western nations during WWII.
What were the costs of WWII and how did differing Allied postwar visions contribute to the Cold War?
Prelude to War (1933-1939)
The Role of Hitler
The doctrine known as Lebensraum aimed for German expansion.
Promoted conditions for strategic military growth termed the “Diplomatic Revolution” (1933-1936).
Rearmament initiated in 1935, violating Treaty of Versailles disarmament clauses.
The occupation of the Rhineland in 1936 marked a significant breach of the treaty.
New Alliances
Formation of the Rome-Berlin Axis in October 1936 and the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan in November 1936 fortified diplomatic ties.
The Path to War (1937-1939)
Continuous rearmament prepared for blitzkrieg tactics.
The union with Austria in March 1938 fortified Germany's position.
Demanded the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia in September 1938, leading to Appeasement illustrated during the Munich Conference on September 29, 1938, guided by Neville Chamberlain (1869-1940).
Czechoslovakia was sacrificed as a result, followed by a Nonaggression Pact with the Soviet Union in August 1939; essentially setting the stage for WWII by invading Poland in September 1939.
The Path to War in Asia
Rise of Japan
Japan's acquisition of territories including Korea, Formosa, and Manchuria occurred through imperial ambitions and military strategies targeting China.
Seizing Manchuria in 1931, followed by the notorious Nanjing Massacre in 1937, showcased Japan's aggressive expansionism and collaboration with Nazi Germany.
CHRONOLOGY of Prelude to War (1933-1939)
September 1931: Japan seizes Manchuria.
January 30, 1933: Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany.
March 9, 1935: Hitler announces a German air force.
March 16, 1935: Military conscription is declared.
June 18, 1935: The Anglo-German Naval Pact is signed.
October 1935: Mussolini's invasion of Ethiopia begins.
March 7, 1936: Hitler reoccupies the Rhineland; breaks treaty.
Spain Civil War and other international tensions arise during this period.
The Course of World War II
Victory and Stalemate
Poland was quickly dismembered within four weeks.
The attack against Western Europe began with a campaign called the Phony War.
Germany acted offensively in April-May 1940, with major attacks against Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France.
The Evacuation of Dunkirk marked a significant event in this phase of conflict.
British Response
The problem of Britain escalates under Winston Churchill’s leadership.
The Battle of Britain occurred from August to September 1940, where the Luftwaffe failed to dismantle Britain's defense.
Invasion of the Soviet Union
Invaded on June 22, 1941, leading to a protracted conflict characterized by initial German success followed by significant Soviet resistance, culminating in a halt by December 1941.
The War in Asia
Fallout of American Isolationism
The attack on Pearl Harbor and the Philippines drew the U.S. into global warfare in December 1941.
Japanese advances marked early successes in spring 1942, leading to complex geopolitical dynamics.
Turning Point of War, 1942-1943
The Grand Alliance vs. Axis Powers
Allies prioritized defeating Germany, providing military aid to Soviet Union and Britain.
The military strategy adopted included unconditional surrender and focused efforts in North Africa and at Stalingrad in February 1943.
Battles like Midway in June 1942 shifted momentum favorably for the Allies in the Pacific.
The Last Years of the War
Allied Advances
Major Allied operations included the Invasion of Italy in September 1943, leading to the fall of Rome on June 4, 1944.
The pivotal D-Day invasion occurred on June 6, 1944.
Final Offensive Actions
Soviet offensives in the East led to escalated battles including Kursk in July 1943.
Hitler's suicide in April 1945, preceded by the surrender of Nazi Germany in May of the same year, marked the European theater's conclusion.
Japan surrendered in August 1945, after atomic bombings in Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
CHRONOLOGY of World War II
Key Events
September 1939: Germany and the Soviet Union divide Poland.
April 1940: Blitzkrieg against Denmark and Norway.
May 1940: Blitzkrieg against Belgium, Netherlands, and France.
June 22, 1940: France surrenders.
Summer 1940: Battle of Britain conducted.
December 1941: US joins the war post-Pearl Harbor incident.
The Nazi New Order
Structure of the Nazi Empire
Areas occupied were organized into provinces or administered directly by Germans, demonstrating racial motivations.
The Nazi regime planned for an Aryan racial empire with policies outlined for brutality and economic exploitation of captured territories.
Resistance Movements
Examples of Opposition in Occupied Europe
Groups utilized sabotage, espionage, and various forms of resistance.
The Free French movement led by Charles de Gaulle symbolized external resistance, while domestic movements faced harsh repulsion from Nazis.
The Holocaust
Early Policies
Initial orientations underlined emigration, but shifted towards systematic annihilation, termed the Final Solution.
Reinhard Heydrich managed operations involving death squads, leading to millions of deaths.
Death Camps
Plans for systematic extermination led to establishment of extermination camps with Auschwitz-Birkenau being the largest site.
Nearly 5 to 6 million Jews were killed, representing about 2 out of 3 European Jews experiencing extermination.
Other groups targeted comprised Gypsies, Slavic people, and homosexuals also faced significant deaths under oppressive policies.
The New Order in Asia
The Great East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere
Promoted the narrative of “Asia for the Asians,” characterized by the exploitation of local resources and harsh treatment of subjected populations.
The Home Front
Mobilization in Various Nations
In Great Britain, around 55% of the populace engaged in war-related work by 1944, and women accounted for a substantial workforce as well.
Measures like the “Dig for Victory” campaign emphasized the home front's importance, prompting nationwide sacrifices.
Aftermath of the War
The Costs of WWII
Losses included approximately 21 million military personnel and 40 million civilians, compounded by the displacement of 30 million people and physical costs estimated at $4 trillion.
Allied War Conferences aimed to articulate future directions for geopolitical stability in the wake of war events.
Discussion Questions Post-War
What actions did the Allies take towards rebuilding war-torn nations?
How did differing visions among the Allies impact postwar Europe and escalate tensions leading into the Cold War?
The Development of the Cold War
Confrontation of Superpowers
Shifts in power dynamics occurred post-WWII as historical perspectives diverged leading to geopolitical tensions between the US and the Soviet Union.
Establishment of various Eastern European Communist governments intensified animosities.
The Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan
U.S. policy sought to counter Soviet expansion through economic aid and military support to key nations.
The Marshall Plan facilitated $13 billion for war-torn European recovery, establishing a framework for Western European unity.
Globalization of the Cold War
International Conflicts
The Korean War highlighted growing conflict stemming from North-South antagonisms, leading to UN intervention and eventual Chinese involvement.
An ensuing Berlin Crisis in 1961 reinforced tensions, culminating in events such as the Cuban Missile Crisis, where nuclear conflict hovered close to reality.
Decolonization
Struggles Across Regions
In Africa and the Middle East, nationalist movements led to decolonization, characterized by resistance against colonial powers and striving for independence.
Prominent leaders emerged, including Kwame Nkrumah and Jomo Kenyatta, pushing for self-determination.
Asia’s Shifts
India’s division into Hindu India and Muslim Pakistan marked significant tumult, while China embraced communism under Mao Zedong after a protracted civil war.
Nationalist strife marked Vietnam's tumultuous path to divisiveness perpetuated by colonial legacies.
CHRONOLOGY of Cold War Developments
1947: Truman Doctrine announced.
1947: Marshall Plan initiated.
1948-1949: Berlin Blockade signifies tensions of division.
1950-1953: Korean War unfolds.
1954: The First Vietnam War concludes.
Recovery and Renewal in Europe
Soviet Transition from Stalin to Khrushchev
Stalin's repercussions reshaped Soviet control, yet a transition towards more moderate policies characterized Khrushchev’s era, reflecting independence movements within satellite states.
The Revival of Democracy in Western Europe
Western European nations embarked on democratization efforts post-war, focusing on social welfare systems, reflecting a gradient towards stability and collective unity.
Formation of various organizations aimed at unity, such as ECSC, EURATOM, and EEC.
Postwar Society and Culture in the Western World
Evolution of the Welfare State
New state power aimed at improving citizens' lives, focusing on social services and healthcare.
Gender issues proliferated as debates ensued over women's roles in society, leading to feminist movements.
Cultural Shifts
Artistic movements like Abstract Expressionism and Pop Art emerged, alongside development of existentialist literature, symbolizing cultural shifts in response to postwar realities.
Discussion Questions Post Reconstruction
Analyze factors surrounding decolonization and its implications.
Investigate changes in Eastern Europe under Khrushchev’s policies.
Examine Western unity paths in the post-war era.
Discuss societal transformations within the U.S. during the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s.
World War I was caused by a mix of militarism and nationalism factors. The early 20th century saw increased tensions between nations. After WWI, Europe struggled with economic instability and political conflict.
Topic 8.2 – World War I
Militarism: The arms race leading up to the war exemplified nations gearing for conflict.
Alliances: The interconnected defense agreements complicated the situation, as an attack on one nation brought in allies.
Imperialism: Competition for colonies created rivalries, particularly among European powers.
Nationalism: Intense national pride worsened tensions, leading to the desire for self-determination or dominance.
Explain how the assassination led to war: The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand heightened existing tensions and triggered a series of alliance obligations,
Topic 8.3 – Russian Revolution
Economic problems: Inflation and food shortages caused widespread discontent among citizens.
Political problems: Autocratic rule under Tsar Nicholas II faced opposition, leading to revolts.
Military problems: Poor performance in WWI diminished faith in military leadership and the government.
Outcome: The Bolshevik Revolution led to the establishment of a communist government.
Topic 8.4 – Treaty of Versailles
War Guilt Clause: Germany was forced to accept full responsibility for the war.
Reparations: Germany was required to pay substantial reparations to the victorious powers, straining its economy.
Territorial Loss: Germany lost significant territories, which affected its national pride and economy.
Why did it cause future conflict? It instilled resentment within Germany and destabilized the region, leading to future tensions.
Topic 8.5 – Global Economic Crisis
The Great Depression began with the stock market crash of 1929. It led to widespread unemployment and poverty. Government struggles: ineffectiveness in addressing economic decline contributed to social unrest.
Topic 8.6 – Fascism & Totalitarianism
Why did people support authoritarian leaders? They offered solutions to economic woes and a sense of national pride during times of crisis.
Topic 8.7 – Interwar Period
Appeasement definition: The policy of making concessions to dictatorial powers to avoid conflict.
Why was appeasement used? Nations sought to maintain peace and stability, fearing another large-scale war.
Topic 8.8 – World War II
Causes:
Failure of the Treaty of Versailles to secure lasting peace.
Economic instability in Germany and worldwide following the Great Depression.
Militaristic expansion by Axis powers, notably Germany, Italy, and Japan.
Topic 8.9 – The Holocaust
Holocaust definition: The systematic, state-sponsored persecution and extermination of six million Jews by the Nazi regime.
How did ideology lead to genocide? Nazi racial ideology dehumanized Jews and justified their extermination as a means of purifying society.
PART II: PRACTICE MULTIPLE CHOICE
The situation described is best explained by: A) Colonial troops B) Traditional tactics vs new tech C) Communism D) Democracy
The outcome contributed to: A) Territorial gains B) Stalemate C) Empire collapse D) Fascism
Cause of Great Depression: A) Industrialization B) Russian Rev C) US crash D) Colonies
Rise of Hitler: A) Trade B) Economic instability C) Religion D) Science
Weakness of Versailles: A) Strengthened Germany B) Ignored nationalism C) Ended imperialism D) Promoted democracy
Appeasement is: A) Resistance B) Sanctions C) Giving in D) Alliances
German unemployment decline: A) Colonies B) Public works C) Democracy D) Trade
WWII differed because: A) Fewer civilians B) Only Europe C) Civilian targeting D) No alliances
Holocaust: A) Economy B) Strategy C) Genocide D) Reform
Similarity WWI & WWII: A) Communism B) Total war C) No civilians D) Asia
PART III: SHORT ANSWER
Explain ONE cause of World War I.
Explain ONE effect of the Treaty of Versailles.
Explain ONE reason authoritarian governments rose.
PART IV: ANSWER KEY
MC Answers: 1.B 2.B 3.C 4.B 5.B 6.C 7.B 8.C 9.C 10.B