History and Archaeology of Early Dynastic and Akkadian Mesopotamia and the Levant

The Early Dynastic Period: Urbanism and Secular Rulership

• Large Cities: By the Early Dynastic period, human populations established themselves in significant urban centers, including Ur, Kish, Umma, Uruk, and Lagash.

• Political Shift: There was a definitive movement away from the governance of priest-kings toward secular rulership.

• City-State Dynamics: The region consisted of competing and warring 'city-states' ruled by hereditary dynasties. This resulted in a constant state of warfare.

• Social and Intellectual Trends: The period saw an increase in writing as well as social inequality.

• Chronological Focus: The majority of current historical knowledge regarding this era is derived from the Early Dynastic III period.

• Lugalzagesi: He was the King of Umma and the last Sumerian king. He successfully united the city-states of Lagash, Umma, and Uruk.

• The Transition to Akkadian Rule: Sargon defeated Lugalzagesi at the Battle of Uruk and subsequently conquered his empire. The end of the Early Dynastic Period is traditionally marked by this political shift rather than by archaeological or material changes.

The Royal Graves of Ur: Elite Burial Practices

• Discovery: Archaeological excavations identified $16$ high-status graves.

• Architecture:

  • The graves were accessed via a shaft.

  • Each featured a stone chamber.

• Human Sacrifice: Evidence for human sacrifice was found within these tombs, including bodies identified as soldiers and female attendants.

• Wealth and Grave Goods: The elite were buried with opulent items, including:

  • Gold helmets and headdresses.

  • Daggers crafted from lapis lazuli and gold.

  • The Royal Standard of Ur.

The Akkadian Empire and Sargon of Akkad

• Unification: Southern Mesopotamia was first unified by Lugalzagesi, whose 'Empire' lasted for only $24$ years. This was cut short by the rise of Sargon of Akkad.

• Empire Foundations: Sargon founded the Akkadian Empire, uniting Northern/Upper and Southern/Lower Mesopotamia.

• Capital: The administrative center was located at Akkad (also called Agade). Identifying the specific site is difficult because there is no clear distinction between Early Dynastic and Akkadian material culture at many sites.

• Sargon's Origins: He reportedly served originally as the 'cupbearer' to the King of Kish.

• Military Expansion: Sargon conducted numerous campaigns in diverse regions:

  • Ebla and Mari (Syria).

  • Simurru (Turkey).

  • Uru’a (Iran).

• Artistic Evolution: Sculptures shifted from the styles of the Early Dynastic period toward a more naturalistic and realistic aesthetic during the Akkadian period.

Enheduanna: Religion and Female Influence

• Role and Identity: She was the daughter of Sargon and served as the Priestess of Nanna at the Sin Temple in Ur.

• Political Utility of Religion: Her installation in a key religious role was a political strategic move to consolidate Sargon's control over Ur and maintain links with the past.

• Literary Legacy: She is recognized as the earliest known named poet. It remains debated whether she authored the poems herself or was the first to transcribe them.

• Status of Women: Her position indicates that women held key roles within the Akkadian Dynasty.

The Reign of Naram-Sin: Expansion and Divinization

• Succession: Following Sargon's death, his son ruled for $9$ years before a period of intense conflict involving rebelling vassal states. Sargon's grandson, Naram-Sin, eventually reversed this instability.

• Imperial Expansion: Naram-Sin built upon Sargon's formula of aggressive military conquest to push the empire to its greatest territorial limits, campaigning in:

  • Syria

  • Elan (Iran)

  • Anatolia (Türkiye)

  • Magan (Oman)

• God-King Ideology: Naram-Sin claimed the status of a god-king. He is depicted wearing a bull-headed helmet, an item typically reserved for deities.

• Control Evidence: Akkadian control is evidenced by the discovery of Akkadian architectural forms and administrative paraphernalia, primarily located in modern-day Syria.

The Collapse of the Akkadian Empire: Myth and Environment

• The Curse of Akkad: This poem provides a mythological explanation for the empire's fall. It claims Naram-Sin angered the gods, leading them to summon the Gutian people to destroy Akkad. The eight gods supposedly agreed to sacrifice Akkad to save the rest of Sumer.

• The $4.2$ KYR BP Climatic Event: Scientists identify a significant climatic deterioration that contributed to the collapse of several $3\text{rd}$ millennium BCE civilizations, including:

  • The Akkadian Empire.

  • The Southern Levantine EB II-III.

  • The Egyptian Old Kingdom.

• Environmental Factors:

  • A shift in the North Atlantic Oscillation significantly reduced the flow of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

  • Lake Van core analysis shows a spike in aridity around $ca. 2290\text{ BCE}$.

  • Deep sea cores from the Gulf of Oman dated to $2025 ± 125\text{ BC}$ and archaeobotanical analyses both confirm increased aridity at the end of the $3\text{rd}$ millennium BCE.

The Second Rise of City-States: Gudea and the Gutians

• Fragmentation: Following the death of Shar-kali-sharri ($ca. 2217-2193\text{ BCE}$), a power struggle ensued. Cities in Southern Mesopotamia declared independence, and a power vacuum was created (defined as a situation where authority has been lost, leaving a void with no clear leader).

• The Gutians: Originally from the Zagros mountain region, the Gutians had been in Sumer for a century before gaining control of Lagash and Girsu.

• The "Golden Age" of Gudea:

  • Gudea was the first notable controller of this era in Lagash.

  • He pursued an expansionist policy, including military campaigns into Elam and long-distance trade as far as India.

  • Social Reforms: He established progressive reforms, including canceling debt and allowing women to inherit land.

The Third Dynasty of Ur (Ur III): Administration and Law

• Rise to Power: Uta Hegel, King of Uruk, instigated a large-scale revolt against the Gutians. He was supported by various rulers, including Ur-Nammu.

• Foundation: Ur-Nammu replaced Uta Hegel and founded the Ur 3rd Dynasty.

• Structure and Culture:

  • The period is divided between the Southern Mesopotamian core and its vassal states.

  • The administration utilized Sumerian rather than Akkadian to distinguish itself.

  • The era was highly organized and saw the appearance of the first law codes, specifically the Code of Ur-Nammu.

The Collapse of Ur III and the Rise of the Amorites

• Era of Chaos: The Ur III period ended approximately $ca. 2000/1950\text{ BCE}$.

• Invasions: The fall was precipitated by 'Amorite' invasions from the eastern desert regions of Syria.

• Sack of Ur: The Elamites sacked the city of Ur and took King Ibbin-Sin into captivity.

• Amorite Dominance: While Elamite control was short-lived, the Amorites gained control of Southern Mesopotamia and dominated the Second Millennium BCE.

The Early Bronze Age Levant: The Magnificence of Ebla

• Timeline: The Early Bronze Age (EB) spanned $3800-2000\text{ BC}$ and is divided into $4$ stages. Stage 4 occurred between $2500-2000\text{ BC}$.

• Levantine Characteristics: This era featured the first appearance of urbanism, fortified settlements, far-flung trade, writing, and the rise of empires.

• Ebla: First settled around $3500\text{ BCE}$, it became the largest city in the region by $2500\text{ BCE}$, competing with Mari for supremacy.

• Palace G: This structure is the centerpiece of Eblaite archaeology:

  • Only $17-23$ of the palace has been excavated.

  • The design is notably not Mesopotamian, consisting of administrative, public, and ceremonial components.

  • It featured a Ceremonial Staircase including mother-of-pearl inlays and a throne room.

  • The palace was destroyed by fire around $2300\text{ BCE}$, which unintentionally preserved the clay tablet archives by baking them into ceramic.

Palace G and the Ebla Archives

• The Archive: One of the few archives identified outside of Mesopotamia, containing $4,000-5,000$ tablets ($2,000$ of which are whole).

• Date: The tablets date from $ca. 2350-2300\text{ BCE}$.

• Linguistic Significance: The tablets use Cuneiform to record both the local Eblaite language and a Proto-Canaanite language.

• Content: The records are primarily economic. Curiously, they mention the King of Kish frequently but contain no mention of Sargon.

• Valuable Finds: Excavations revealed lapis lazuli, Egyptian diorite vessels, and alabaster stone vessels.

The Temple of the Rock at Ebla

• Religious Syncretism: The temple combined Mesopotamian-type deities with local ones. The chief god was Kura.

• Architecture: Built around $2400\text{ BCE}$, it was a monumental building with walls $6\text{ m}$ thick and $15\text{ m}$ high. It was constructed on limestone bedrock for symbolic significance.

• Abandonment: Unlike Palace G, the Temple of the Rock was abandoned rather than destroyed.

The City-State of Mari: Planning and Conflict

• Phases of Mari:

  • City I: $2950-2650/2550\text{ BCE}$.

  • City II: $2650/2550-2200\text{ BCE}$.

  • City III: $2200-1760\text{ BCE}$.

• Settlement Design: Mari was a planned settlement constructed to a preformulated plan. It was a round city with inner and outer fortifications.

• Infrastructure: A large canal was dug through the city during the City I phase. Continuous fortifications were maintained.

• Royal and Scared Space: Almost all temples were located in the inner center. Palaces and monumental tombs (often built under house floors) characterized the urban landscape.

Cultural and Military Transitions in the Euphrates Region

• Destruction of Mari: City II was likely destroyed by Naram-Sin in a violent event where the city was torched. Following this, a new dynasty and Mesopotamian material culture emerged.

• Shakkanakku Dynasty: Mari became a vassal state of Akkad, though the Shakkanakku later ruled independently after the Akkadian collapse.

• Militarism: The period of Mari and Ebla's competition saw an increase in militaristic iconography, such as the White Monument at Tell Banat North. This mound, $22\text{ m}$ tall and $100\text{ m}$ wide, was covered in white gypsum and marl.

• Regional Collapse: The end of the Early Bronze Age is marked by widespread destruction across Mesopotamia and Syria. Theories for this collapse include climate change, natural disasters, or invasions by the Amorites and Hurrians.