Comprehensive Study Notes: Colonial America, the Seven Years' War, and the U.S. Constitution
Colonial Population and Demographics in the 1700s
The Union Jack: This is the name given to the British flag.
Colonial Population Growth:
At the beginning of the $1700\text{s}$, the population of the English colonies was approximately .
By , the population had grown to people.
Enslaved Population in the 1700s:
of the total colonial population was enslaved.
of enslaved people resided in the Southern colonies.
Employment and Rural Life:
of people lived in rural areas and worked in farming.
In comparison, only about of the population works in farming today.
German Immigrants in the Colonies:
They made up of the total population by , numbering approximately .
The majority were Protestants.
They were commonly known as "Pennsylvania Dutch." This name originated because they referred to themselves as "Doich," which was misinterpreted by English speakers as "Dutch."
Scots-Irish Immigrants in the Colonies:
They comprised of the population, totaling people.
They were primarily Protestants.
Other European Groups:
Represented of the population.
Included groups such as the French, Welsh, Dutch, Swedes, Jews, Irish, and Swiss.
Early Virginia and Bacon's Rebellion
Jamestown and indentured Servitude: Indentured servants migrated from England to Jamestown to farm tobacco, which eventually led to the development of the Virginia (VA) colony.
Berkeley's Deal (1640s):
Virginia Governor William Berkeley reached a deal with Indigenous people.
In exchange for land, Berkeley promised that settlers would not push further into Indigenous territories.
Discontent and Nathaniel Bacon:
Many settlers were displeased with Berkeley's deal.
Nathaniel Bacon, a young planter in western Virginia, was a primary critic.
He argued that the government was doing too much for Indigenous people and resented Berkeley's restrictions on land expansion.
Bacon's Rebellion (1676–1677):
Bacon and his followers took up arms against Governor Berkeley.
They settled on forbidden land and blamed the government for failing to clear the area of Indigenous people.
Bacon led attacks on Indigenous villages and then marched on Jamestown to drive Berkeley out.
Jamestown was burned to the ground by Bacon and his gang.
End of the Rebellion:
Bacon suddenly became ill and died from dysentery.
Berkeley was forced to return to England because he could not maintain peace, and the situation became too volatile.
The Paxton Boys and Frontier Tensions
The Paxton Boys (1764):
They were primarily Scots-Irish immigrants who settled in western Pennsylvania.
They had ongoing conflicts with both Indigenous people and white landowners.
Demands and Claims:
Settlers claimed Indigenous people raided homes and killed people, though these claims were largely false.
While there may have been instances of stealing, there were no large-scale killings as claimed.
The group asked the Pennsylvania legislature for guns.
The legislature refused because they were Quakers and pacifists.
Violence and Protest:
In response, the Paxton Boys raided friendly Indigenous villages, killing individuals and kidnapping .
A mob of men marched toward Philadelphia to challenge the government for failing to protect them.
Resolution:
Benjamin Franklin met the mob at Germantown.
He promised to listen to their grievances provided they dispersed.
The Paxton Boys demanded a "remonstrance of the distressed and bleeding frontier" and the right to drive all Indigenous people from Pennsylvania.
Many Indigenous people moved further west to escape the violence.
Intercolonial Wars and the Albany Plan
King William's War (1689–1697): Known in Europe as the War of the League of Augsburg.
Queen Anne's War (1702–1712): Known in Europe as the War of Spanish Succession.
King George's War (1744–1748): Known in Europe as the War of Austrian Succession.
Albany Plan of Union (1754):
The Albany Congress met to prepare for what appeared to be an imminent conflict between Britain and France.
Benjamin Franklin proposed a plan for the colonies to contribute soldiers to raise a defensive army.
The plan would be funded by a small tax on each colony.
The plan required approval from both the individual colonies and the British government; it was not approved.
The Seven Years' War (French and Indian War)
Timeline: to .
Sides: The French and Indigenous allies versus Britain and the American colonies.
Scope: The war took place in Europe, Asia, and North America.
Key Battles and Turning Points:
Battle of Quebec (1759): The British captured Quebec. Both primary leaders, Louis-Joseph de Montcalm (French) and James Wolfe (British), died in the battle.
Capture of Montreal (1760): British successfully captured Montreal.
Ft. Duquesne: Another significant battle won by the British.
End of the War: Britain won, and France was defeated.
Debate Over Territorial Gains:
Britain had to choose between taking New France (Canada) or the sugar-producing islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique.
Benjamin Franklin's View: As a colonial representative in England, he argued for taking New France. He believed it would secure American colonies from French threats and evoke colonial pride to see the British flag across the continent.
British Advisors' View: They preferred the islands because they were more valuable for sugar and tobacco crops compared to a "frozen wasteland." They also believed keeping the French in North America would make colonists more dependent on the British government and easier to control.
Results: Britain took New France. France lost virtually all of its North American empire except for the two sugar-producing islands. Quebec and Montreal remained under French cultural control, leading to the preservation of the French language and laws.
Economic Policy and the Road to Revolution
Mercantilism:
An economic system where a mother country establishes colonies to acquire raw materials (e.g., gold, silver, fur, lumber, food).
The mother country manufactures these materials into products and sells them back to the colonies.
Goals: Mercantilists favored a balance of trade (imports equaling exports) and were terrified of national debt.
Colonial Role: Colonies were meant to serve Britain and feel more connection to the mother country than to each other.
British Financial Situation Post-1763:
Britain was broke after a century of warfare.
They had to support a standing army in the colonies.
National Debt: Reached (equivalent to approximately today).
George Grenville: Appointed as Chancellor of the Exchequer, he was tasked with fixing the financial crisis through parliamentary planning.
Restrictive Acts:
Navigation Acts (1650–1770s): Regulated colonial trade, including ship crew requirements.
Wool Act (1699): Restricted colonies from selling wool to Great Britain to protect British producers.
Hat Act (1732): Restricted colonies from selling hats to Great Britain.
Taxation and Colonial Resistance
Salutary Neglect: Before and during the French threat, colonies enjoyed sovereignty because British navigation laws were only randomly enforced. Rhode Islanders, for example, engaged in significant smuggling.
George Grenville's Strategy: Because Britons were already heavily taxed, he turned to the colonists for revenue.
Tax Ratio: For every a colonist paid, a Briton paid .
Income Percentage: Colonists paid of their income in taxes; Britons paid .
Sugar Act (1764):
Established a tax of per gallon of molasses.
It replaced an older, unenforced tax of per gallon.
New England colonies were particularly unhappy.
Stamp Act (1765):
Taxed all paper products, including playing cards.
Paper was stamped to verify the tax was paid.
Colonists created a "skull and crossbones" stamp in protest.
Stamp Act Congress (October 1765):
Held in New York City.
Decided to boycott British goods.
The Sons of Liberty were formed in Massachusetts to organize the boycott and intimidate tax agents.
Repeal and Declaratory Act:
The Stamp Act was repealed in after British merchants complained about the boycott.
Parliament simultaneously passed the Declaratory Act of 1766, stating it had the authority to make any laws for the colonies.
Townshend Acts (1787 - Note: per transcript):
Proposed by Charles Townshend, Grenville's replacement.
Imposed a small tax on paint, glass, lead, paper, and tea.
Writs of Assistance: Standing, open-ended search warrants allowing customs agents to search anywhere for smuggled goods.
Failure: Townshend predicted revenue of annually, but they raised less than . British merchants lost due to the boycott.
All taxes except the one on tea were repealed in .
Military Escalation and the Boston Massacre
Quartering Act: Colonists were required to supply British soldiers with food, munitions, and barracks (rarely private homes) to reduce British costs.
Customs Act (1767): Moved the customs service headquarters from Halifax to Boston to better inspect ships and collect taxes.
Vice Admiralty Court Act of 1768: Created courts in Halifax, Boston, Philadelphia, and Charleston to try smugglers before judges rather than juries of their peers.
The Boston Massacre (March 5, 1770):
Conflict: A soldier outside the Boston customs house was targeted with ice and insults. Backup arrived, and the situational conflict with the crowd (some armed) escalated.
Violence: Captain Thomas Preston's soldiers fired. people died immediately; died later.
Crispus Attucks: A free Black man; he was the first person killed.
Depiction: Paul Revere and Sam Adams used an illustration to depict soldiers as butchers of defenseless colonists.
Attorneys and Trials:
John Adams defended the soldiers because it was difficult for them to find a lawyer.
He used the philosophy of Cesare Beccaria (who believed in protecting individuals from government tyranny) to defend them.
Verdict: were found not guilty; were convicted of manslaughter and received thumb tattoos as identification of their conviction.
The Gaspee Incident and the Boston Tea Party
Gaspee Incident (June 9, 1772):
The British ship Gaspee, captained by William Dudingston, chased a ship named the Hannah owned by John Brown in Narragansett Bay.
The Gaspee ran aground on a sandbar. John Brown and others boarded the ship, held the crew at gunpoint, shot Dudingston in the leg, and burned the ship.
An investigation followed, but no one revealed the perpetrators, and the case was closed without charges.
The East India Company (EIC):
A massive employer and tax source for Britain that also managed India.
Hard hit by colonial tea boycotts.
1773 Aid: Britain allowed EIC to sell tea to colonies tax-free, undercutting colonial merchants like John Hancock.
Boston Tea Party (1773):
In late November and early December, three ships (Dartmouth, Eleanor, and Beaver) arrived in Boston Harbor.
The Sons of Liberty, disguised as Mohawks, threw chests (each weighing ) into the harbor.
Losses: of tea, valued at .
The Intolerable Acts and Continental Congress
Coercive Acts (May 1774): Known as the "Intolerable Acts" by colonists.
Ended town meetings.
Closed Boston Harbor until restitution was paid to the EIC.
Administration of Justice Act: Soldiers accused of crimes against colonists were tried in London or Halifax.
Continental Congress (September to October 1774):
Colonies banded together to respond to the acts.
Participants: Included John Adams (believed in inherent rights from God), Sam Adams, Stephen Hopkins (introduced a bill to prohibit slave imports), John Jay, John Dickinson, and George Washington.
The Post-War Government and the Articles of Confederation
Treaty of Paris (1783): Britain acknowledged the U.S. as extending from the Atlantic to the Mississippi River and from Canada to the southern border.
Federalist Papers: Written by John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison to urge ratification of the Constitution.
Newburg Conspiracy (March 15, 1783):
Soldiers were unhappy about lack of pay. Col. John Armstrong circulated a letter calling for a meeting in Newburg, NY.
Washington interrupted the meeting, put on his glasses, and gave a speech promising they would be paid, successfully quelling a potential march on Philadelphia.
Articles of Confederation (1783–1787):
Drafted by a committee chaired by John Dickinson.
Established a "league of friendship" where states remained independent and the central government was weak.
Weaknesses: Required states to pass laws and to amend. No executive branch, no national courts, no standing army, and no power to tax or regulate trade.
Shays' Rebellion (1786–1787):
Farm prices fell after the war. In western MA, farmers led by Daniel Shays threatened tax collectors and burned courthouses.
This served as the catalyst for the Constitutional Convention.
The U.S. Constitution and Government Structure
Northwest Ordinance of 1787: Plan for adding new states. Required free men for a legislature and for statehood. It banned slavery in these territories.
Constitutional Convention (May 25 – September 17, 1787):
Held in Philadelphia with George Washington as President.
Attendance: James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, Roger Sherman.
Missing: Jefferson and John Adams (overseas), Patrick Henry (opposed), Rhode Island (boycotted).
The Great (Connecticut) Compromise:
Proposed by Roger Sherman (communicated through Franklin).
The House: Representation based on population.
The Senate: Equal representation ( per state).
Three-Fifths Compromise: To settle North-South debates, enslaved people counted as of a person for representation/taxation.
Branches of Government: Influenced by Baron de Montesquieu.
Legislative (Article 1): Congress; passes laws.
Executive (Article 2): President and VP; enforces laws.
Judicial (Article 3): Supreme Court and lower courts; interprets laws.
Specific Legislative and Executive Rules
Qualifications for Office:
House: years old, years a citizen, resident of the district, -year term.
Senate: years old, years a citizen, inhabitant of the state, -year term.
118th Congress Stats:
House: members ( Democrats, Republicans, current vacancies).
Senate: members ( Democrats, Independents, the rest Republicans).
Congressional Powers and Limits:
Prohibitions: Cannot pass Ex Post Facto laws (applying laws to past actions) or Bills of Attainder (penalizing a group without trial).
Writ of Habeas Corpus: Cannot be suspended except in war.
Slave Trade: Importation of slaves could not be banned until Jan 1, .
Case Study: Craig Price (1990s): Committed four murders in RI at ages and . Because he was a minor, state law required release at age . The law was changed after his conviction, but due to the prohibition of Ex Post Facto laws, the new law could not keep him in jail for the original murders (though he stayed in jail for prison assaults).
Presidential Succession: Vice President $\rightarrow$ Speaker of the House $\rightarrow$ President pro tempore $\rightarrow$ Secretary of State $\rightarrow$ Cabinet members.
The Oath of Office: Taken at on Inauguration Day. George Washington's oath was notoriously soft-spoken because he feared his false teeth would fall out.