Geology and Spatial Planning Lecture Notes Review

Geology: Exogenic Geomorphological Processes

Geology studies the Earth's structure at depth, while geomorphology studies landforms and their formation processes.

Geology

• Geologists examine the subsurface in terms of both depth and time, studying how it has evolved over millions or billions of years.
• They also analyze how soil properties change laterally and vertically.
• A key application of geology is determining the safety of building on certain land.
• Endogenic processes: Processes that shape the landscape from within the Earth.
  • Volcanism (volcanoes).
  • Tectonics: Crustal deformations (faults, folds).
  • Mountain formation.
• Geological knowledge is crucial for:
  • Locating minerals (oil, water, ores).
  • Understanding and predicting natural disasters (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions).
  • Protecting and remediating soil.

Geomorphology

• Geomorphology focuses on exogenic processes or erosion which shape the landscape from the Earth's exterior.
  • Glacial erosion: Action of glaciers and ice caps.
  • Fluvial erosion: Action of flowing water, rivers, river valleys, meanders.
  • Marine erosion: Action of oceans, seas, and lakes.
  • Aeolian erosion: Action of wind.
  • Chemical erosion: Action of chemical substances, karst processes.
  • Mass movement: Transport of material under gravity, landslides, debris flows, avalanches.

Glacial Erosion

Glacier Formation

• Snow: Precipitation with a crystal structure, common in cold regions.
• Eternal snow: Altitude above which snow remains permanently, not completely melting in summer.
• Snow transformation into ice:
  • Even with eternal snow, a layer may melt due to the sun. This meltwater refreezes at night, recrystallizing the snow.
  • Temperature fluctuations and meltwater percolation transform fine powder snow into coarse crystal snow or firn (ice crystals clump together) in about a year.
  • With accumulating snow, pressure increases, compacting firn layers into glacier ice.
  • Air volume in the ice decreases, altering light refraction and giving the ice a blue color. The entire process takes several years.

Types of Glaciers

• Large ice masses move under gravity.

• Ice becomes plastic and mobile at a thickness of 20-30m.

• The speed of ice movement varies based on slope, friction, ice temperature, and pressure (ice layer thickness).

• Alpine glaciers average 100-150 m per year.

• Greenland ice, due to its greater thickness and pressure, can move up to 40 m per day.

Land Ice in Polar Regions, Ice Caps

• Antarctica and Greenland have ice caps ranging from 500 to 4000 meters thick.
• The highest peaks that protrude above the ice are called nunataks.
• In the Arctic, the ice mass floats in the sea.
• At the edges, parts of these ice caps break off, forming icebergs that drift away with the seawater.
• Isostatic pressure: The Earth's crust sinks under the weight of the ice pack and rises when the ice melts.

Valley Glaciers in High Mountain Ranges

• Gravity drives the movement of valley glaciers.

• Firn basin: The area where snow accumulates and transforms into firn and glacier ice which feeds the glacier.

• Cirque: The bowl-shaped feature formed in the firn basin.

• Glacier tongue: An extension of the firn basin that flows into lower valleys. These are often long, narrow extensions.

• Glacier front: The end of the glacier tongue.

• Glacier portal: The location where meltwater (glacier milk) flows out from under the glacier, forming a mountain stream or flowing directly into a lake.

• Crevasses/transverse fractures: Cracks in the ice caused by stretching as the glacier moves over a steeper slope.

• Longitudinal fractures: Can occur when a glacier is stretched in width.

• Moraine: Debris transported by a glacier.

  • Lateral moraine.
  • Medial moraine.
  • Terminal moraine.

• Rasping (abrasion): Frozen stones, sand, and loose rocks scour and grind the walls next to the glacier.

• This rasping action can result in heavily grooved rock blocks after the glacier disappears.

• Fine material can polish the stone surface.

• Scratches indicate the direction of ice movement, running parallel to it.

• Glaciers transport both large and small pieces of debris regardless of speed.

• The terminal moraine is a collection of debris from medial, lateral, and ground moraines, marking the point of sediment deposition.

• Large rocks are often left behind because the meltwater lacks the force to transport them further.

• The terminal moraine can act as a dam, forming a glacier lake by blocking meltwater.

Landscape Features Due to Glacial Erosion

• U-shaped valleys: Valleys with steep, smooth walls and a flat bottom, formed by glacier tongues.
• Cirque or corrie: Half-circle shape, very steep walls, and a hollowed bottom, formed in place of the former firn basin.
• Horn: A solitary, eroded peak.
• Comb: A series of peaks with eroded walls on both sides.
• Fjords: Old glacial valleys that flow into the sea and are now filled with water.

Marine Erosion

Marine erosion studies coastlines, including sediment deposition and erosion coasts.

Flat sedimentary coasts of the North Sea

• After the last ice age, the sea level rose, submerging the North Sea area.
• The current Belgium was a polar desert.

Tidal Currents Model the Coast

• Sandbanks run parallel to the coast, from southwest to northeast.
• Water from the Atlantic Ocean flows into the North Sea via the Scottish coast, collides with southeast England, deflects north, and exits along the Norwegian coast with water from the Strait of Dover.
• Tidal currents, parallel to the Belgian and Dutch coastlines, move material on the North Sea floor, forming sandbanks roughly parallel to the coast.
• Sandbanks result from erosion by tidal currents.
• A strandwal or schoorwal is a sandbank that is no longer flooded at high tide.
• Continuous supply of new material raises sandbanks, and they emerge above sea level at low tide.
• Wind action further blows sand onto these sandbanks.
• When the sandbanks with dunes no longer flood at high water, they form a strand wal or schoorwal.
• The Wadden Islands in the Netherlands are remnants of a beach or schoorwal.
• A mudflat is the area between the beach ridge and the coast that is flooded.

Sedimentation on the Beach

• The intertidal zone is flooded at high tide, while the supratidal zone is not, except during spring tide.
• A creek is a small water channel on the beach.
• Waves and tides (ebb and flow) have both destructive and constructive effects on the beach.
• Surface waves are caused by wind and have limited transport capacity, except near coasts.
• Tsunamis are very long waves caused by underwater landslides, earthquakes, or volcanic eruptions, which can cause great damage.
• Tidal waves and tidal currents are caused by ebb and flow, due to the attraction of the sun and moon.
• Sea currents result from temperature differences and cause horizontal currents.
• The surf are the crashing waves on the beach.
• A zwin is a depression in the sand caused by crashing waves, the surf; pools remain in these depressions at low tide.
• A mui is the connection between the zwin and the sea, where water flows back to the sea.
• A slikke is part of the beach that is flooded at high tide and has no vegetation.
• A schorre is a higher part of the beach that is vegetated.
• Polders are low-lying areas inland, below sea level with canals.
• The word "Flanders" etymologically means "flooded land."

Formation of the Coastal Area

• The coastline has changed over time.
• During the last ice age (Weichselian), the sea level was more than 100 m lower than today.
• As the ice caps melted at the end of this ice age, the sea level rose (transgression).
• During this transgression, the land was flooded, and sand and clay sedimented.
• Three transgressions are known in recent history: Dunkirk I, Dunkirk II, and Dunkirk III transgressions.
• Gradually, this area silted up, and vegetation had the chance to thrive here.
• After this, the coastal plain was flooded during the two last transgressions.
• The second Dunkirk transgression was by far the most important.
• From the 2nd to the 8th century AD, a large part of the coastal plain flooded to the borders of present-day Diksmuide and Bruges.
• Testerep was an island off the coast in the 5th-6th century, a sand island off the Belgian North Sea coast, between what is now Nieuwpoort and Bredene and off Ostend, Westende and Middelkerke.
• Testerep was better developed by people with dikes, and settlements could grow into villages.
• The clearest link is Westende, Ostend and Middelkerke.
• Westende and Ostend would be towns that would develop on either side of Testerep, hence their names: West-ende (the western end) and Oost-end (the eastern end).
• Middelkerke was in the middle.
• Furthermore, you also have Mariakerke, originating from the church on Testerep.
• Bredene refers to one of the channels that cut Testerep off from the rest of the country: 'Brede Eede'.
• Storm floods especially broke down the naturally formed Testerep further.
• After the St. Vincent flood of 1394, Testerep was abandoned, and the new Ostend was founded more inland.
• In the 15th and 16th centuries, the tidal action would permanently let the island of Testerep disappear into the sea.
• Only the southern part of Testerep would still be part of the mainland after poldering.

The erosive cliff coasts of the Opal Coast

• In northern France, close to the Belgian border, is the Opal Coast.

• The French call the Opal Coast Côte d’Opale.

• The area around Cap Blanc-Nez and Cap Gris-Nez is called the Boulonnais.

• The Cap Gris-Nez and the Cap Blanc-Nez are also called Les 2 Caps.

• In archaic Dutch, people referred to Swartenesse and Blankenesse: black nes and white nes.

• Nes comes from an Old Dutch word for a protruding piece of land in the sea.

• This whole region contains Dutch place names that were Gallicized a long time ago, such as Wissant (Witzand) or Sangatte (Zandgate).

• The appearance of the coast changes as one goes further west.

• In the North Sea coast, the environment is still fairly flat with modest dune strips.

• The extreme northwest point along the Strait of Dover at Cap Blanc-Nez and Cap Gris-Nez is characterized by chalk cliffs rising high above the sea.

• Cap Blanc-Nez is a chalk cliff that rises over the narrowest part of the Channel.

• The cliff is 133 meters high.

• Geologically, it is identical to the White Cliffs of Dover.

• Next to Cap Blanc-Nez, 16 kilometers southwest of this remarkable landscape, is the cliff Cap Gris-Nez.

• This part of the coast is closest to England.

• In clear weather, you can even see the coastline.

• There are an enormous number of fossils to be found at the chalk cliffs Cap Blanc-Nez and Cap Gris-Nez.

• These are mainly fossils of sea urchins and primitive squid species.

• There are mainly imprints and internal skeletons to be found.

• The sea washes them out of the chalk rock.

Fluvial Erosion

River Action

• Fluvial erosion: The process of wear of a solid surface whereby material is displaced or disappears entirely by water, rivers.
• Rivers transport debris, derived from river erosion itself or from slope processes on the valley walls.
• The debris can be transported in various ways:
  • In solution: Salts, lime.
  • In suspension: Floating in the water such as clay and loam.
  • Hopping or rolling on the bedding: Sand and pebbles.
  • E_k = (m
    v^2) / 2
• Kinetic energy of a river depends on:
  • Mass (m): Amount of river water, m^3 or liter.
  • Velocity (v): Flow rate of the river water or discharge (m^3/s).
• Hjulström diagram: Indicates at which speed and grain size loose rocks move, remain in motion, or sediment.
• Depending on the energy state, a river will absorb, transport, and deposit material (River action).
• The result of river action is erosion.

This action is visible in the landscape through:

• Vertical erosion: The river scours its bedding.
• Erosion base: The depth to which a river can cut into, corresponds to the mouth (sea or other river).
• Horizontal erosion: Causes the valley to widen because the river undermines its own banks.
• The river basin: Area from which water flows to one river e.g., Meuse or Rhine.
• The watershed: Higher area between two river basins, the boundary between river basins.
• The watershed is not the highest area in the Ardennes!
• In an initial uplift, the ridge of Bastogne became the highest and became the watershed.
• The next uplift phase proceeded so slowly that the rivers cut into the landscape in such a way that the watershed ridge remained on the lower part.

The longitudinal profile

• What is the longitudinal profile of a river?
• Graph of the path of water from source to mouth with differences in slope, Y-axis: height (m), X-axis: length (km) e.g., longitudinal profile High Fens – Rotterdam (North Sea).
• What is the gradient of a river?
  • ∆y/∆x= The ratio between the height difference (∆y) of a river and their mutual distance (∆x).

The High Fens

• The High Fens form the last remnant of the peneplain formed at the end of the Cretaceous after the retreat of the Cretaceous Sea.
• High differences? Little height differences, plateau = higher plain.
• Rivers? Warche.
• Highest point? Signal de Botrange, 694 m.

The V-shaped Warche Valley

• The V-shaped Warche valley was created after the Alpine uplift by:
  • vertical river erosion: the river scours its bedding.
  • slope erosion: the valley slopes crumble under the influence of gravity.

The relief of the Amblève valley

• River action of the Amblève.
• What differences do you notice in slope and distance compared to the Warche valley?
• Differences? Gradient is smaller over a greater distance.
• Consequence: the Amblève goes meandering.
  • Meandering = river makes bends.
• Meandering rivers widen the valley. This is lateral or horizontal river erosion.
• Bobsleigh theory: Where the flow rate is high, there is uptake or erosion; where the speed is lower, there is sedimentation.
• Inner bend: sedimentation
• Outer bend: erosion.
• Inner bend: beach.
• Outer bend: steep slope.
• The Amblève forms a flat-bottomed valley this way.
• The bottom is flat due to the horizontal erosion.

The Coo waterfalls

• Origin of the waterfalls:
• The monks dug away the impact banks (where most erosion occurs) in order to place a watermill in the resulting waterfall.
• An electricity station (Electrabel): water flows from the holding basins to the cut-off meander and supplies electricity to absorb peaks in the event of problems.

The Ninglinspo Valley

• At Nonceveux, the small stream Ninglinspo flows into the Amblève.
• The river is only 7.2 km long but shows some remarkable phenomena on its course.

Conclusion

• Rivers shape the landscape.
• Through a whole set of physical processes:
  • kinetic energy.
  • erosion.
  • transport.
  • sedimentation.
• The result is the different valley shapes.
• Vertical erosion is typical for rivers in higher relief areas.
  • deep valley with a narrow valley floor.
  • a gorge valley e.g., Grand Canyon.
  • V-valley e.g., Warche valley.
  • waterfalls and rapids: where the river has temporary difficulty eroding because there are harder rock layers in the bedding e.g., the Ninglinspo (the Coo waterfalls are of human origin).
• Lateral or horizontal river erosion is typical for rivers that have reached their erosion base.
  • wide shallow valley with a flat valley floor.
  • flat-bottomed valley e.g., Amblève valley, Ourthe valley.
  • flat valley e.g., Maas valley.
  • meandering rivers.
  • horseshoe- or sickle-shaped lakes: old cut-off meanders e.g., Coo.

Aeolian and chemical processes

Aeolian process during the ice ages

• The spread of the land ice during the last ice age 20,000 years ago:
• Ice cap over Northern Europe: present-day Scandinavia, United Kingdom, northern Germany and Poland, Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania).
• Name of that geological period: Weichselian or Würm (20,000 years ago).
• Consequences of the periglacial climate, sedimentation of loess and sand:
• A periglacial climate prevailed in large parts of Europe (south of the ice cap).
• These periglacial climate conditions had their influence on the landscape.
• The North Sea was dry.
• The material from the dry North Sea blew with the strong northerly winds over Europe and was deposited there.
• It was a selective deposition:
• The heaviest material, such as sand (grain size 0.05 to 2 mm) was first deposited/sedimentated by the wind.
• Sand was sedimented in the north.
• Lighter material such as loam (grain size 0.002 to 0.05 mm) was sedimented further in the south of present-day Flanders.
• It occurs on the surface in large parts of the Netherlands and Belgium.
• The sands are often layered by the occurrence of loamy layers and locally contain some fine gravel.
• Sometimes the cover sand was also deposited in elongated ridges, cover sand ridges, with a direction corresponding to the prevailing wind direction (from NW to N).
• As a result of the dominating wind direction, the cover sand goes over into finer-grained material (loess) to the south.
• South Limburg and Central Belgium lie in this loess belt.

Chemisch proces: karstwerking in het dal van de Ourthe (Chemical Process: Karst Action in the Ourthe Valley)

• The caves of Comblain-au-Pont.

• Limestone, a long story.

• Caves are naturally “modeled” in limestone by water.

• How does limestone originate (think of the geological history of the Ardennes in the Cretaceous)?

• Limestone is created by dead marine animals on the bottom of the Cretaceous Sea, deposition of lime.

• After that, enormous forces compressed these layers, which we call banks.

• Between these layers were fine layers of clay and sand.

• This is how these very old “Visian” limestone rocks originated about 340 million years ago.

• Later they were moved, bent, and folded (Hercynian and Alpine folding).

• Those layers were barely stretchable, and soon they started to show cracks that were perpendicular to the layers, the strata.

• Those cracks or fractures are called diaklazen.

• It is probably only 1 to 2 million years ago that the seeping water hollowed out a cave.

• In many cases, an underground river erodes the rocks, and that is how caves are formed.

• But this does not apply to the caves of Comblain-au-Pont.

• The halls are spectacular widenings of the diaklazen.

• The hollow spaces in the cave are mainly created by the corrosion of the water when the cave is under water.

• The corrosion is the first force of nature that hollows out a cave.

• However, pure water cannot make cavities.

• When the water flows over the top layer of the soil (humus), it absorbs acid and carbon dioxide from the humus.

• This carbon dioxide also becomes acidic through contact with the water (the decomposition of plant and animal remains in the soil forms an enormous amount of carbon dioxide).

• This natural acid dissolves a very small amount of limestone when it flows over the lime rock.

• The siphons, which are usually located at the back of the caves, are therefore often the work of erosion (a small stream arises and wears away the rock by friction) and corrosion forces.

Summary

• Corrosion: chemical phenomenon in which the limestone is dissolved by the acidity of the water.
• Erosion: mechanical phenomenon in which the rock is worn away by the friction of the flowing water.

Spatial planning

Analysis of one's own living environment

• The United Nations has drawn up a list of 17 sustainable development goals.
• Sustainability is more than just being good for the environment.
• For something to be sustainable, it must also be socially and economically feasible, must not cause conflicts, and, of course, must not further deplete the planet.
• These goals focus on five themes or the 5Ps of the model for sustainable development: People, Prosperity, Partnership, Planet, and Peace.
• These five dependent components are essential for sustainable development.
• When one component scores less, the overall sustainability can come under pressure.

The 5P's

• People: stands for ensuring quality of life, health and well-being, and the social component (inclusion, accessibility, community spirit).
• Prosperity: stands for prosperity, economic development (stimulating enterprise and innovation, creating employment), and sustainability.
• Partnership: stands for cooperation and involvement of various stakeholders, such as government agencies, communities, companies, and civil society organizations, to jointly make decisions and achieve goals.
• Planet: stands for promoting ecological sustainability and protecting the environment when planning and developing spatial environments.
• Peace: stands for promoting safety, social harmony, and conflict resolution in an area, taking into account the needs of the community and preventing potential tensions or risks.
• A living environment has many possible aspects to investigate for sustainability.
• In this research, you will work with six aspects: mobility, energy, waste management, buildings and urban design, food production, and climate resilience.
• After the analysis of an aspect, you make a report on how the aspect scores on the 5Ps.
• To determine a score, you get a number of questions per 'P'.

You answer this by:

• 1- Investigating your own living environment and noting your findings;
• 2- Consulting sources that give you more information about your living environment that is not visible in the streetscape.
• Then you give a score per ‘P’ and indicate this score out of 10 on the bars below.
• A bar is divided into 10 units each time.
• The more units you color, the better the score, and vice versa.

Tasks

• Discover how your municipality has changed over the centuries using Geopunt.
  1. Search for your municipality using the search bar.
  2. Click on 'layers' at the bottom right.
  3. Click on the bar with 'background' and indicate 'historical'.
  4. Now click on the different maps over time and discover how your municipality has changed.
• Investigate one or more domains and check how well or less well your municipality scores on them.
• Finally, put all the studies together and draw a conclusion from them.
• The questions per aspect serve as guidelines/example questions.
• You are not obliged to answer every question.
• However, the more questions you answer, the more correct your sustainability score will be.

Existing legislation

• The government is aware of our highly fragmented environment.
• That is why they developed the Spatial Policy Plan Flanders, which is based on 4 important goals:
  1. Due to the increasing population numbers and the changing family composition, it is necessary to adapt the zoning plans of spaces to provide sufficient and adapted housing.
  2. The planning and updating of the plans aims to better protect us against floods and other natural disasters.
• We notice with climate change that our existing infrastructure is facilitating certain things or is not protecting us sufficiently.
  3. The planning and adapting of our space is important to respond to new technological breakthroughs such as windmills, electric cars, waste containers with sensors…
  4. The planning of public space and its review is important to avoid traffic congestion as much as possible and to allow traffic to proceed as safely as possible.
• A number of major plans and measures have already been decided to hopefully be able to meet these goals in the future.

Construction shift

• The building shift, also known as the concrete stop, is a policy measure that seeks to reduce the building on open space and wants to shift the focus to the reuse of existing buildings and the strengthening of urban areas.
• The goal is to harden only 3 ha/day extra by 2025 and 0 ha/day by 2040.
• A lot has already been written about the building shift.
• Few people doubt that it is important and must come (good score on almost all Ps.).
• The way it will be done will probably lead to a lot of discussions…

STROOMversnelling and Blue Deal

• Both the major STROOMversnelling and the Blue Deal focus on water management in Flanders.
• The major STROOMversnelling is a plan that from 2022 to 2027 mainly wants to focus on the quality of the water and life in it, while the Blue Deal wants to protect our society against flooding and water shortages.
• The Blue Deal wants to achieve its goal by strengthening the (water) infrastructure and focusing on sustainable management of our water by:
  1. Smart water use
  2. Expanding Wet nature
  3. Expanding Green-blue infrastructure
• Both the major STROOMversnelling and the Blue Deal score reasonably well on quite a few Ps.
• Hopefully, it has been noticed that a solution to prevent flooding in a city, for example, by letting a river run above ground again, not only has an effect on flooding.
• The benefits are much more diverse.
• It, therefore, seems desirable and even necessary to invest heavily in these plans.

Distant future, or not?

Upgrading

• Upgrading means that the current spatial layout is retained, but as much effort as possible is made to make what is already present more sustainable.
• There are several options for this.

Smart City

• A Smart City is a city that uses technology and data to run the city in a more efficient and sustainable way.
• By running a city this way, a lot of profit can be made in terms of efficiency.
• This is, therefore, more of an investment than a cost.
• Nevertheless, it is still recommended to investigate the desirability on a social level, including possible privacy issues or the safety (hackers) of a computer-controlled society.

Alternative housing forms

• The composition of families has changed greatly in recent years.
• The needs in terms of housing options too.
• Some alternative and sustainable housing forms for the future are:
  • Tiny Houses where the house is very compact and very well thought out
  • Care homes or kangaroo homes where people in need of care live/live in a small housing unit near a home
  • Community Land Trust where only the house is bought, not the land on which the house stands
  • …
• The housing market has become considerably more expensive in recent years.
• These alternative housing forms score strongly on Prosperity, but also on People and Partnership.
• There are certainly some caveats to be made with each form of housing, but all in all they certainly seem worth further rolling out in Flanders as a sustainable solution for living in the future.

Nature-based solutions

• For many problems, we can use nature to create solutions for our problems.
• A number of possibilities are:
  • insulation material from regrowing materials
  • replacing concrete with, for example, wood
  • a dune belt that acts as a storm barrier
  • wadis as water buffering systems
  • …
• A disadvantage of nature based solutions is that they are sometimes (a lot) more expensive than conventional building materials or solutions.
• Or does it only seem that way?
• Perhaps it is a good idea to also include the environmental cost in the traditional materials in order to be able to compare prices in a fairer way.

Solar streets

• Is covering our streets and roads with solar panels a sustainable solution?
• Probably not.
• There are many more efficient and cheaper ways to generate electricity with solar panels.

Thinking outside the box

• By upgrading our current society, we may never (quickly enough) arrive at a sustainable society that respects the limits of our planet.
• We need radically different visions and out-of-the-box thinking.

The Line

• The Line is a Saudi Arabian project to build a city in height and length, a line so.
• It is a futuristic and revolutionary city model.
• It will be a car-free city, where a (according to its own account, performant) underground public transport regulates all transport, which uses its design for natural ventilation and coolness.
• Moreover, the city would be full of the latest technological gadgets.
• Is it desirable/feasible to flatten some Flemish cities and turn them into a new linear city?
• Of course not!
• Is the project then pointless for us?
• No, we need test beds worldwide to try out new concepts, to see what works and what doesn't.
• Perhaps such projects can make us question the prominent role of a car/privatized transport?

Conclusion

• It is not easy to put the right solutions for society and the housing forms of the future on the table.
• The 5 Ps never score equally well everywhere.
• However, one P is more important than the other.
• That is why there is an adjusted, nested form of the schema of the 5Ps below, with the SDGs (Sustainable Development Goals) that are being pushed forward by (all 193 countries of) the UN as points for action, sustainability goals that should be achieved by 2030.
• The most important P is Planet since without a (healthy) planet no other goal can be achieved.
• It forms the natural boundary for our economic activities.
• People and Peace nest in it, who can of course work and live together within the planetary boundaries.
• The third ring is that of Prosperity.
• Prosperity rises or falls both with the environment (planet) in which it is created and with the people and their mutual relationships (peaceful, safe) who want to create prosperity.
• A pole through all circles holds everything together: Partnership or cooperation(s).