Exam Notes - Pronouns & Verbs

• Conscription, conversion, and elision are different linguistic processes.
• Suffixes like “-or” are used to change a verb to a noun, indicating agency or profession.
• A gerund is a nominalized verb functioning as a noun, such as "Winning" in the sentence, “Winning isn’t everything, you know.”

Pronouns

• Pronouns replace nouns in sentences to avoid repetition and make the writing sound more natural.
• The noun being replaced by a pronoun is called the antecedent.
• Example: "John said that John wants to use the computer that belongs to John" becomes "John said that he wants to use the computer that belongs to him."
• The use of pronouns also communicates information such as grammatical person (first, second, or third person).
• When speaking in the first person, we replace our own names with the pronoun "I."

Functions of Pronouns

• Pronouns serve the same functions as nouns:
  • Subject of a sentence or clause
  • Object of a verb
  • Subject complement (following linking verbs)

Categories of Pronouns

• There are various categories of pronouns, each with unique functions.

Personal Pronouns

• Personal pronouns represent people in a sentence.
• They inflect (change form) to reflect grammatical person (first, second, third), number (singular, plural), gender (masculine, feminine, neuter), and case (subjective, objective, possessive).

Reflexive Pronouns

• Reflexive pronouns are similar to personal pronouns and are used when the subject and object of a clause are the same.
• Formed by adding “-self” (singular) or “-selves” (plural) to the end of my, your, our, him, her, it or them (as well as the indefinite pronoun one).
• Example: "I saw myself in the mirror."

Intensive Pronouns

• Intensive pronouns are identical in form to reflexive pronouns but emphasize the subject’s role in the verb’s action rather than functioning as the object.
• Example: “I checked over these documents myself.”

Indefinite Pronouns

• Indefinite pronouns replace nouns that are not specifically identified.
• Examples: "everyone," "all," "whatever," "many."
• Singular or plural depending on whether the noun they represent is singular or plural

Demonstrative Pronouns

• Demonstrative pronouns indicate specific people or things and their nearness to the speaker.
• The primary demonstrative pronouns are this, that, these, and those, indicating singular/plural and near/far.
• Examples: "This isn't mine," "Give me that," "These are really gross," "I forgot to bring those."

Interrogative Pronouns

• Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions and can function as the subject or object of the sentence.
• The five primary interrogative pronouns are who, whom, whose, which, and what.
• Examples: "Who is coming to the party tonight?" "So, which will it be: $10,000, or a new sports car?" "Could you tell me whose these are?" "Do you know what we're doing here?"

Relative Pronouns

• Relative pronouns connect relative clauses to the main clause and clarify or add information about the antecedent.
• They can function as the subject, object, or possessive determiner in the relative clause.
• Examples: "There’s the woman who always sits next to me on the bus," "The book that I wrote is being published in January," "The escaped giraffe, which had been on the loose for weeks, was finally captured," "The person, whose name can’t be revealed, appeared in court today."

Reciprocal Pronouns

• Reciprocal pronouns indicate that two or more people are acting as the subject of a verb and equally receive the verb’s action.
• They include "each other" (traditionally used for two people) and "one another" (traditionally used for more than two people), though they are often used interchangeably.
• Examples: "Jake and I call each other every day," "My neighbors and I spent a lot of time at each other’s houses when we were kids."

Dummy Pronouns

• Dummy pronouns (also known as expletive pronouns) function grammatically but do not have antecedents and do not replace a noun, phrase, or clause.
• The two dummy pronouns are there and it.
• There helps a sentence function properly in a grammatical context.
• It is typically used when weather, distance or time is being discussed.
• Examples: “There is a ship in the harbor,” “It looks like it may snow tonight.”

Quiz

1. Antecedent
2. Reflexive pronouns
3. Demonstrative pronouns
4. Nouns
5. Indefinite pronoun

Personal Pronouns

• Personal pronouns represent grammatical persons within a sentence and can refer to animals, objects, or intangible concepts.
• The selection of a personal pronoun depends on four grammatical elements:
  • Number: Singular or plural
  • Person: First, second, or third person
  • Gender: Male, female, or neuter/neutral
  • Case: Subjective, objective, or possessive
• This shifting of form based on grammatical elements is known as inflection.
• Reflexive pronouns are closely related to personal pronouns and are used when the subject of a verb is also the object of the same verb.

Grammatical Elements

Number

• Grammatical number refers to whether something is singular or plural.
• Personal pronouns have specific inflections for singular and plural forms.
• Only first-person and third-person personal pronouns have plural forms.
• Second-person pronouns (except the reflexive form) don't inflect for number, requiring context to determine if they are singular or plural.

Person

• Grammatical person distinguishes between a speaker (first person), an addressee (second person), and others beyond that (third person).
• First person
  • Singular: I, me, my, mine, myself
  • Plural: we, us, our, ours, ourselves
• These pronouns express an autobiographical point of view.
• Second person
  • Singular/Plural: you, you, your, yours, yourself (singular), yourselves (plural)
• These pronouns indicate those directly addressed by the speaker.
• The second-person pronouns are also often used to indicate an unspecified person (generic you, impersonal you, or indefinite you).
• Third person
  • Feminine singular: she, her, hers, herself
  • Masculine singular: he, him, his, himself
  • Neuter singular: it, its, its own, itself
• These pronouns are used to talk about someone or something that is not the speaker and is not being directly addressed. This is most widely used in fiction writing.
• Singular they: when a single person of an unknown gender is being discussed, the third-person plural forms (they, them, etc.) are used as a gender-neutral alternative to the third-person feminine/masculine forms.

Gender

• English personal pronouns can be inflected for gender when in the third person and singular, to correspond to the gender of the person (or, in some cases, an animal) it represents
• Personal pronouns are only inflected for gender when they are in the third person and singular
  • Third-person feminine singular: she, her, hers, herself
  • Third-person masculine singular: he, him, his, himself
• Animals can sometimes take gendered personal pronouns if they are pets or domesticated animals; otherwise, they take the third-person neuter form
  • Third-person neuter singular: it, its, its own, itself
• Countries and ships: Countries and vehicles, especially ships or boats, will sometimes be given a feminine form when spoken of in the third person.
• Singular they: English does not have a way of identifying a single person with a pronoun if his or her gender is not known, so sometimes the third-person plural forms (they, them, etc.) are used

Case

• Personal pronouns are inflected depending on whether they function as a subject, object, possessive determiner, or possessive pronoun.
• Subjective Case: Used when a pronoun is the subject of a verb.
• Objective Case: Used when a pronoun is a direct or indirect object of a verb, or the object of a preposition.
• After Linking Verbs (Subject Complements): The pronoun should be in the subjective case.
• Possessive Case (Genitive Case):
  • Possessive determiners: Function grammatically like adjectives, modifying a noun or nouns; however, they cannot function as nouns in a sentence.
  • Possessive pronouns: Personal pronouns in the possessive case which have the grammatical function of nouns.

Reflexive Pronouns

• Used when the subject and object of a verb are the same.
• Can never be used as the subject of a verb.
• Examples: myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, herself, himself, itself, themselves, and oneself.

Intensive Pronouns

• Identical to reflexive pronouns in form (myself, yourself, etc.).
• Add emphasis to the subject (antecedent) of the sentence.
• Not grammatically integral to the sentence's meaning.
• “John played the tuba.” vs. “John played the tuba himself.”

Indefinite Pronouns

• Used in place of a noun without specifying a particular person or thing.
• Can be singular, plural, or either, depending on the context.
• Can refer to people, things, or both, depending on the specific pronoun.
• Examples referring to people: anyone, everyone, one, you, nobody, someone, whoever, whomever, they
• Examples referring to things: anything, enough, everything, less, little, much, nothing, something, such, this, whatever, whichever
• Examples referring to people or things: another, one, each, either, other, both, few, fewer, many, others, several, all, any, more, most, neither, none, plenty, some
• Some indefinite pronouns (e.g., more, another) can also function as indefinite adjectives if they come immediately before a noun.

Demonstrative Pronouns

• Replace nouns or noun phrases, representing things nearby or far away in space or time.
• Examples: this, that, these, those, none, such, neither
• This (singular, nearby), that (singular, not near), these (plural, nearby), those (plural, not near)
• Functions of other demonstrative pronouns: None and such can be used as both singular and plural. Neither is always treated as a singular demonstrative pronoun.
• Can describe people when the person is identified by the pronoun’s antecedent within the same sentence.
• Demonstrative pronouns vs. demonstrative adjectives and determiners: As demonstrative pronouns, this, that, these, those, such, and neither represent nouns. As demonstrative adjectives and determiners, these same words instead modify nouns, appearing immediately before them in a sentence.

Interrogative Pronouns

• Used to ask questions, functioning as the subject or object.
• Five primary: who, whom, whose, which, what.
• Direct Questions: Interrogative pronoun usually comes at the beginning. "Who is coming to the party tonight?"
• Indirect Questions: Interrogative pronoun appears in the middle of the sentence. "Could you tell me whose these are?"
• Reported Questions: Form of declarative sentences using reported speech. "She wants to know whose these are."
• Other interrogative pronouns are used for emphatic purposes: whoever, whomever, whichever, whatever, whatsoever, whosoever, and whomsoever.
• Can also function as interrogative adjective or relative pronouns depending on context.

Relative Pronouns

• Connect relative clauses (adjective clauses) to the main clause in 3 ways:
  • Subject of the clause
  • Object of the clause's verb
  • Possessive determiner
• Common: that, which, who, whom, whose
• Less Common: where, when, whoever, whosoever, whomever, whichever, wherever, whatever, whatsoever
• Restrictive (defining) relative clauses: provide essential information and not set apart with commas. o “I’ve never understood people who hate sports.”
• Non-restrictive (non-defining) relative clauses: contain non-essential or additional information non-essential clauses require commas. o “The large park, which she used to visit when she was young, had been around for many years and was a popular gathering spot for children.”
• That vs. Which: that is a general relative clause indicator, while which is used in Non-Restrictive Relative clauses. e “I want a computer that/which** can download a lot of games.” (Which and that can both describe things.)
• Omitting Relative Pronouns: Especially in informal writing, relative pronouns can be omitted in a restrictive clause with that as the subject.
• Relative pronouns as objects of prepositions: The home in which I grew up holds many dear memories for me is formal, so that in everyday speak, the preposition can be a the end of the clause: “The home I grew up in holds many dear memories for me.”

Quiz

1. to ask or report a question
2. whatever
3. whom
4. whichever

Reciprocal Pronouns

• Used when two or more subjects both/all individually and equally receive the verb's action.
• Two reciprocal pronouns: each other (traditionally for two) and one another (traditionally for more than two), but generally the terms are interchangeable today
• Usage: The can be the object of either the verb itself or a preposition used to complete the verb’s meaning.
• Possessive pronound: the reciprocal pronouns are singular so use -’s . Each other’s or One another’s

Quiz

1. A & B
2. the object
3. a)
4. When the subjects of the sentence receive the action of the same verb mutually and equally

Dummy Pronouns

• Function grammatically as pronouns without replacing a noun, phrase, or clause.
• Two dummy pronouns: there and it.
• There: Typically describes a persons, place, or thing that exists and can be singular or plural.
• It: Describes weather, distance, or time and is only singular.

Quiz

1. it
2. There
3. Expletive pronouns
4. Subject
5. Antecedents

Verbs

• Used to indicate actions, processes, conditions, or states of beings of people or things.
• Constitute the root of the predicate.

Finite and Non-Finite Verbs

• Finite verbs have a direct relationship to the subject- does not require another verb.
• Non-finite verbs do not express that relationship directly. They require a finite verb to be correct and considered base form or part participle.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

• Transitive: describe an action that is happening to someone or something and take a direct object
• This person or thing receiving the action is known as the direct object of the verb.
  -Intransitive verbs: do not have objects and their action is not happening to anyone or anything.

Plural vs Regular Verbs

• Regular verbs: use can add “-d” or “-ed” to their base form.
• Irregular verbs: do not adhear to a specific pattern, and we just have to learn each one individually.
• Be: a highly irregular verb with three different present tense forms (is, am, are) and two past tense forms (was, were), in addition to its base form and its past and present participles (been, being).

Forms and Categories

- All verbs are either finite or non-finite and transitive or intransitive in a given sentence, depending on their form and function.

Quiz

1. To describe an action, state of being, or condition performed or experienced by someone or something
2. Finite verbs
3. Past tense and past participle forms
4. Direct objects
5. Infinitive verb
6. Conjugation

Finite and Non-Finite Verbs

Finite Verbs

• Have subjects and indicate grammatical tense, person, and number.
• Describe the action of a person, place, or thing in the sentence.
• Does not require another verb in the sentence in order to be grammatically correct.

Non-Finite Verbs

• Do not have tenses or subjects that they correspond to; instead, these verbs are usually infinitives, gerunds, or participles.

Singluar/Plural and How To Identify

• If the verb is in the third person, it often singular and has an “-s” ending.
  Verbs functioning in the past tense are finate.
• Finite Verbs often directly follow a verb to subject to create a clear connection.

Quiz

1. is
2. drove
3. a tense
4. B & C
5. “-ed”

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Transitive Verbs

• Describe an action that is happening to something or someone, which is known as the verb's direct object. Put simply: action verbs that do something.

Intransitive Verbs

• Describing an verb action that that doesn't not transition to something. The intransitive verb is, in essence, the absence of a direct object to go to.

Transitive vs Inttransitive Mnemonic Device

• To remember the difference between the two : transitive verbs transition OR transfer an action to a person or thing that receives it. Because in- means not, intransitive does not transfer an action to anyone or thing that receives its actions.

Ambitransitive Verbs

• Some action verbs are can transit both directly or intransitive,depending on the information a speaker whishes to include.

Monotonic & Ditransitive

• Ditransitve: A verb which acts upon a single object.
• Tritransitive : takes 3 verb phrases or objects in a sentence.

Reivies

• Transitive verbs always have an object; intransitive verbs do not.
  Ambtitransitive Verbs

Quiz Q&A

1. An object
2. ambitransitive
3. ditransitive
4. intransitive
5. monotransitive

Regular and Irregular Verbs

Defintion

• All Verbs are ether regular or irregular depending in how they are conjugated.
• Most are regular, but “-d” or “-ed” is added to their base form. Past simple tense and past paticiple.

Rules To Irregular and Regular Verbs

• Regular; “-d” or “-ed” and change a ending to short followed by short vowel, we double the final consonant as well (ex: chop).
• Irregular: Past tense and past partipical forms are much different them base/ they are often completely different and MUST be memorized.
  • Exception: be, which conjugates has three different present tense forms (is, am, are).

Auxiliary and How To Identify: Verb Endings

• Regular verbs: only changes to verb being d or ed
• Irregular verbs: Past simple tense (was vs “gone”).
• Finite verbs: Third Person singular with s endings.

Quiz

1. listen
2. swim
3. regular
4. gave
5. D
6. C

Anxillary Verbs Defintion

• Verbs use to complete primary verbs. Without semantic meaning alone.

Type:

• Three auxiliary verbs: be, do, and have is used. to form different tenses, to form negatives, or to ask questions.
• Modal : modal verbs are used to express modality—that is, possibility, likelihood, ability, permission, obligation, or future intention. (can, could, will, would, shall, should, must, may, and might).

Identifying Features with Examples:

• Auxilary - are used to complete the meaning of primary verbs
• Modal - will be there tonight.
  Infinitives- most basic construction + “To” example: to be, to run. *CAN BE USED AS NOUNs OR ADJECTIVES.
• Aux must be identified by a sentence being gramaticially correct and only finite.

Quiz

1. must
2. the verb can conjugate to reflect plurality
3. A
4. A
5. have

Primary Auxiliary Verbs

• Be. Have, and Do: most common verbs that either functions as auxiliaries or a main verb.

What Is used To Form Tens and Verbs

• Be: Forms Continues Tenses, Have: Perfect Tenses then Been for Perfect Continues.
  — We create both Tenses and Verb by use of the main action, by “doing.”

Verb Inflection.

• How to make an affirmative and negative verb using this and also intergarotie form to get a point across.
  For example, it vs I / Me.

Importance of Knowing

A major to the role of verb tense is its ability to shift depending oh how it works.

Quiz

1. B)
2. See answer key for more.

Definition of Modals

• Used to uniquely shfit the m eaining of what it works with. So the most important part is the meaning it presents and shfits because as to it’s core meaning and what is used.
• Example and chart to know it - what does it represent in certain situations.

More information on Modal

In a more more understanding to their use and the role they pay into the sentence structure.

Quiz

1. (look and chart)

Modal Anxillary Verbs - Will

• A multu-purpose verbs to make a sentence more open about its meanings and expression. Very versitile.
• Its all about what it presents, and how its is presented. Wary with sentence structure.

Quiz

1. c) Express what someone is authorized to do

Modal of “Would”

• Take the same of “will, and you will the same outcome and can do same of every verb”.
• That’s the major point to take from any modal verb.
• And as said before its expression of future events that has a cause for happening or set in motion for these instances.
• I have read about the correct usage, as a non native that’s another issue.
  • This what I have read so far.

This one I have to revisit due to information retention. Also review the others.

• Just use context, so it’s about knowing your grammar and sentence reading capabilities.
  Not going to lie these slides aren’t easy.

Key Things to Remember

Modal Verbs - are there to shift meaning uniquely.

• We see that everything changes depending on context- this is why we need to have that information so that we don’t get confused.
• So as to why each definition has to have the sentence around it to get the full context, they are here for us. so i feel that a chart is missing.

Quiz

1.B

Modal Verbs - Shall

• What make it more distinct compare to other and what does it do to add to its role and why its there for that meaning of what it to give the reader.
• Remember that it can switch depending in the setting of a situation like formal and when not to add.
• The goal is to understand the usage the the setting.

Which do we use and Why/ and Examples chart.

• I feel like ill make a chart to explain these as that’s way too long.
• I will see these again for sure.
  • Ill try to make quiz or section to retain the information.
  Its also depends of the region that is being spoken from that it may change meaning.
  I wont lie, it does get confusing even as a teacher .

Quix

• Its ok to fail the point is to learn the concepts.
  B / B.

Modal Verbs- Should

• Advice based and can express duty vs a will

British VS American.

More common to see outside of the state vs America. This makes it a cultural as well not only base what is more appropiated for usage.
That is something to look out for as that something that requires different understanding

Quiz for the topic and some Notes.

I didn't find much more to take notes down that weren’t there, i really can’t explain a chart.

It takes to know that they are all going to revolve around personal opinions.
For both usage that’s similar chart, you are to just understand context.
What you want the other person to know when using these words and why this one vs that one.
This requires reading to understand.
That’s basically is this to see more better and improve on a subjective point of view ( i see nothing in it ).
I must see what can to retain it

Intteragtore Pronouns

Its about asking quesationss and how and what you form

• Function wise:
  • To create an interigation and a clause for such a purpose
  • Most commonly to ask question in the setting

Whats their importance and what does it imply from whom and where:

• To the use and more to what the other mean and and what makes it important and know the different. “ The key difference!”
• I know people dont touch on that but that the core and point.
• The example are great at helping here.

What I did not know is that its also known as adjectives in writing for the formal terms, something more learn .

Summary and conclusion

To what is know this set is rather not unique to its purpose but is very very tricky to understand in its role.
Make sure to retain its structure, to get the role its trying to imply and what key is used. Remember that with these you will be able to infer what is more important about them.
Its why the context is important to know when where and why they do what they do.. Ill try ti see again to to get a better grasp on
I did miss the Q and A so that’s a must.

Functions of the Relative pronoun

• Subjects, objects, and possession (and a breakdown within it’s own chart). Is a way to compare the relationship that they hold.
  • Example. “The woman who came to my house was a salesperson.”

What we can find and replace or not replace in sentences

• That part of the slide. to understand and recognize to more understand.
  Restrictive vs. no-restrictive: We can be lost to this, when to put Commas , and when a relative clause appears to be incorrect. “ this is critical for understanding how sentence building works and where we may miss or miss use commas or cause another part of the writing to get lost in interpretation.