U2

1.                Neuroscience – The scientific study of the nervous system, including the brain, spinal cord, and neural networks.

2. Neurodiversity – The idea that neurological differences, like autism or ADHD, are natural variations of the human brain.

3. Nervous system – A network of nerves and cells that transmit signals between different parts of the body.

4. Nerves – Bundles of fibers that transmit electrical signals throughout the body.

5. Motor neurons – Nerve cells that carry signals from the brain and spinal cord to muscles to initiate movement.

6. Sensory neurons – Nerve cells that carry sensory information from the body to the brain.

7. Interneurons – Neurons that connect sensory and motor neurons within the central nervous system.

8. Spinal cord – A long, thin structure made up of nerve tissue that extends from the brain and helps in transmitting signals between the brain and the body.

9. Central nervous system (CNS) – Consists of the brain and spinal cord, controlling most functions of the body and mind.

10. Peripheral nervous system (PNS) – The part of the nervous system outside the CNS, connecting the CNS to the limbs and organs.

11. Somatic nervous system – The part of the PNS that controls voluntary movements of the body.

12. Autonomic nervous system – The part of the PNS responsible for regulating involuntary functions such as heart rate, digestion, and respiratory rate.

13. Sympathetic nervous system – A division of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for stressful or emergency situations (fight or flight).

14. Parasympathetic nervous system – A division of the autonomic nervous system that helps the body to relax and conserve energy (rest and digest).

15. Endocrine system – A collection of glands that produce hormones to regulate metabolism, growth, and other bodily functions.

16. Hormones – Chemical substances produced by glands that regulate the activity of certain cells or organs.

17. Adrenal glands – Small glands located on top of the kidneys that produce adrenaline and cortisol during stress.

18. Pituitary gland – A pea-sized gland located at the base of the brain, often called the “master gland” because it controls other glands in the endocrine system.

19. Oxytocin – A hormone and neurotransmitter involved in childbirth, lactation, and social bonding.

20. Adrenaline – A hormone released by the adrenal glands in response to stress or excitement, increasing heart rate and energy levels.

21. Cortisol – A hormone produced by the adrenal glands that helps regulate metabolism and the body’s response to stress.

22. Neocortex – The part of the brain responsible for higher-order brain functions such as sensory perception, cognition, and generation of motor commands.

23. Occipital lobe – The part of the brain located at the back of the head, responsible for visual processing.

24. Temporal lobe – The region of the brain involved in processing auditory information and memory.

25. Frontal lobe – The part of the brain responsible for higher cognitive functions like decision-making, problem-solving, and motor function.

26. Parietal lobe – The part of the brain that processes sensory information such as touch, temperature, and pain.

27. Insular lobe – A region of the brain involved in consciousness, emotions, and self-awareness.

28. Primary sensory area (somatosensory cortex) – A part of the brain that processes sensory input from various body parts.

29. Primary motor cortex – A region of the brain responsible for the planning, control, and execution of voluntary movements.

30. Association cortex – Parts of the cerebral cortex that integrate different types of sensory and motor information to produce a coordinated response.

31. Limbic system – A set of brain structures involved in emotion, behavior, and long-term memory.

32. Hippocampus – A brain structure involved in the formation of new memories and spatial navigation.

33. Amygdala – A part of the brain involved in emotion processing, particularly fear and pleasure.

34. Basal ganglia – A group of structures involved in coordinating movement and habit formation.

35. Thalamus – A brain structure that acts as a relay station for sensory information going to the cortex.

36. Hypothalamus – A brain region that regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and other autonomic functions.

37. Brainstem – The lower part of the brain, connecting the brain to the spinal cord, and controlling basic life functions such as breathing and heart rate.

38. Midbrain – A part of the brainstem involved in vision, hearing, motor control, sleep, and arousal.

39. Pons – A section of the brainstem that helps regulate breathing and communication between different parts of the brain.

40. Medulla oblongata – The lower portion of the brainstem that regulates vital functions like heart rate and blood pressure.

41. Reticular formation – A network of neurons in the brainstem involved in arousal and regulating sleep-wake cycles.

42. Cerebellum – A region at the back of the brain involved in balance, coordination, and fine motor control.

43. Executive functions – High-level cognitive processes that include decision-making, problem-solving, and self-control.

44. Corpus callosum – A thick band of nerve fibers connecting the left and right hemispheres of the brain, allowing them to communicate.

45. Substantia nigra – A part of the brain involved in movement and reward, closely related to dopamine production.

46. Broca’s area – A region of the brain responsible for speech production.

47. Wernicke’s area – A brain region involved in understanding spoken and written language.

48. Lateralization – The specialization of functions in each hemisphere of the brain.

49. Contralateral – Refers to the idea that the left side of the brain controls the right side of the body, and vice versa.

50. Split-brain procedure – A surgery that involves cutting the corpus callosum, often used to treat severe epilepsy.’

51. Brain networks – Systems of interconnected brain regions that work together to perform specific functions.

52. MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) – A non-invasive imaging technique used to view detailed structures of the brain and body using magnetic fields and radio waves.

53. Phrenology – An outdated and discredited theory that linked bumps on the skull to personality traits and cognitive abilities.

54. Neuropsychology – The study of the relationship between brain function and behavior, often through examining patients with brain injuries.

55. Lesion – Damage to a specific area of the brain, often used in research to study brain function.

56. Dissociation/Double dissociation – A method used to demonstrate that two cognitive functions operate independently of one another.

57. Single-cell recordings – A technique used to measure electrical activity from individual neurons.

58. EEG (Electroencephalography) – A non-invasive technique that records electrical activity of the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp.

59. MEG (Magnetoencephalography) – A technique that measures magnetic fields produced by neural activity in the brain.

60. PET (Positron Emission Tomography) – An imaging technique that measures brain activity by detecting radioactive tracers injected into the body.

61. fMRI (Functional MRI) – An imaging technique that measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow.

62. DBS (Deep Brain Stimulation) – A surgical procedure that involves implanting electrodes in the brain to treat movement disorders like Parkinson’s disease.

63. TMS (Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation) – A non-invasive technique that uses magnetic fields to stimulate nerve cells in the brain to treat depression and other conditions.

64. Dendrite – Branch-like structures of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons.

65. Cell body/Soma – The part of the neuron that contains the nucleus and other organelles, responsible for maintaining the cell.

66. Axon – A long, slender projection of a neuron that transmits electrical impulses away from the cell body.

67. Terminal branches/Buttons – The small branches at the end of an axon that release neurotransmitters into the synapse.

68. Myelin sheath – A fatty layer that covers the axon and helps increase the speed of electrical signal transmission.

69. Glia/Glial cells – Supportive cells in the nervous system that help nourish and protect neurons.

70. Action potential – A brief electrical impulse that travels down the axon, allowing neurons to communicate.

71. Ion channels – Protein channels in the cell membrane that allow ions to enter or leave the cell, playing a key role in generating action potentials.

72. Depolarization – The process by which a neuron becomes less negative inside compared to outside, leading to an action potential.

73. Refractory period – The brief period after an action potential during which a neuron is unable to fire again.

74. All-or-nothing principle – The concept that a neuron either fires completely or not at all; there is no partial firing.

75. Resting potential – The electrical charge of a neuron when it is not active.

76. Synapse – The gap between two neurons where communication occurs through the release of neurotransmitters.

77. Neurotransmitters – Chemicals that transmit signals across a synapse from one neuron to another.

78. Glutamate – The most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, involved in learning and memory.

79. GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid) – The primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, helping to reduce neuronal excitability.

80. Norepinephrine – A neurotransmitter involved in arousal, attention, and the fight-or-flight response.

81. Dopamine – A neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, and motor control.

82. Serotonin – A neurotransmitter that affects mood, appetite, sleep, and emotional regulation.

83. Acetylcholine – A neurotransmitter involved in muscle contraction, learning, and memory.

84. Endorphins – Neurotransmitters that act as natural painkillers and are associated with feelings of pleasure.

85. Substance P – A neurotransmitter involved in transmitting pain signals.

86. Agonist – A substance that enhances or mimics the effect of a neurotransmitter.

87. Antagonist – A substance that blocks or reduces the effect of a neurotransmitter.

88. Excitatory – A type of neurotransmitter or signal that increases the likelihood of a neuron firing.

89. Inhibitory – A type of neurotransmitter or signal that decreases the likelihood of a neuron firing.

90. Diffusion – The process by which neurotransmitters are removed from the synapse by spreading out in all directions.

91. Degradation – The breakdown of neurotransmitters in the synapse by enzymes.

92. Reuptake – The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron after signaling.

93. Phenotype – The observable characteristics or traits of an organism, influenced by genetics and environment.

94. Genotype – The genetic makeup of an organism, determining its inherited traits.

95. Allele – A variant form of a gene, one of which is inherited from each parent.

96. Gene expression – The process by which genetic information is used to produce proteins that influence traits.

97. Epigenetics – The study of how environmental factors can affect gene expression without changing the DNA sequence.

98. Behavioral genetics – The study of how genetic and environmental factors influence behavior.

99. Heritability – A measure of how much of the variation in a trait can be attributed to genetic differences within a population.

100. Monozygotic – Identical twins that develop from a single fertilized egg and share the same genetic material.

101. Dizygotic – Fraternal twins that develop from two separate eggs and share about 50% of their genetic material.

102. Neural plasticity – The brain’s ability to change and adapt in response to experience, learning, or injury.

103. Critical periods – Specific windows of time in development when the brain is particularly receptive to certain environmental stimuli.

104. Damage plasticity – The brain’s ability to reorganize and form new connections after injury.

105. Adult plasticity – The ability of the brain to change and adapt even in adulthood, though generally less flexible than in childhood.

106. Phantom limb – The sensation that an amputated or missing limb is still attached to the body and can feel pain or other sensations.

107. Multiple Sclerosis – A disease in which the immune system attacks the myelin sheath, disrupting communication between the brain and body.

108. Myasthenia Gravis – A chronic autoimmune disease that causes weakness in the skeletal muscles by affecting communication between nerves and muscles.

109. Aphasia – A disorder caused by damage to the parts of the brain responsible for language, leading to difficulties in speaking, reading, or writing.

110. Stem cells – Undifferentiated cells with the potential to develop into various cell types, including neurons.

111. Neurogenesis – The process of generating new neurons, particularly in the hippocampus.

112. Nature – The influence of genetic inheritance on behavior and development.

113. Nurture – The influence of the environment and upbringing on behavior and development.

114. Natural Selection – The process by which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.

115. Environment – External conditions and influences that affect an organism’s development and behavior.

116. Heredity – The passing of traits from parents to offspring through genes.

117. Eugenics – A controversial practice aimed at improving the genetic quality of a population, often through selective breeding.

118. Reflex arc – A neural pathway that controls an immediate, automatic response (reflex) to a stimulus.