The Italian Unification

The Italian Unification

Core Question

  • What makes people Italian?

    • Historical issue rather than just sociological.

    • Prior to unification, there was no defined concept of "Italian identity."

Foreign Perception of Italians

  • Italians are viewed as:

    • Distrustful of the state and institutions.

    • Loyal primarily to family, friends, and church rather than the nation.

    • Tax avoidant and known for circumventing laws.

    • Lacking strong national loyalty.

Italy in 1832: Pre-Unification Conditions

Economic Backwardness: 5 Major Problems

  1. Lack of Raw Materials

    • Insufficient resources such as iron and coal for industrial development.

  2. Poor Infrastructure

    • Underdeveloped roads and railways, primarily in the North, neglecting the South.

  3. Misuse of Tax Revenue

    • Funds diverted to courts, armies, and bureaucracy rather than industrial development.

  4. Absent Entrepreneurial Class

    • The bourgeoisie and nobles avoided business risks; wealthy Southern landowners maintained estates without reinvestment.

  5. Political Division (Main Problem)

    • Eight separate states, each with its own currency, laws, duties, and borders.

Political Landscape

  • Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (South):

    • Largest geographically, ruled by the Bourbon Monarchy under Francis II.

  • Kingdom of Sardinia/Piedmont (Most Important):

    • Led by House of Savoy; pivotal to unification efforts.

  • Lombardy/Venetia:

    • Not Italian, part of the Austrian Empire, governed by Austrian authorities.

  • Papal States (Center):

    • Ruled by Pope Pius IX, holds autonomous governance.

Intellectual Divisions

Two Paths to Unification

  • Democrats vs Moderates

Democrats

  • Goal: Quick unification through popular uprising.

  • Method: People's revolution, opposing monarchy.

  • Vision: Republican Italy.

  • Distrust: Viewed monarchs as unreliable based on past failures (1820-21).

Key Democratic Figures:

  • Giuseppe Mazzini:

    • Founder of the secret society "Young Italy."

    • Vision: "One free, independent, republican nation."

    • Believed in popular insurrection for unification, a critical but unrealized concept.

  • Carlo Cattaneo:

    • Advocated for a federal republic (federation of states).

    • Ideas considered too extreme at the time; rejected House of Savoy leadership.

    • Refused to return to Italy post-unification.

Moderates

  • Goal: Gradual unification with royal support.

  • Method: Collaboration with monarchies.

  • Vision: Constitutional monarchy.

  • Pragmatic View: Needed royal power for success.

Key Moderate Figures:

  • Vincenzo Gioberti:

    • Priest and politician, liberal Catholic.

    • Proposed a confederation under the Pope's leadership.

    • Initially supported but ultimately rejected; labeled reactionary and anti-nationalist.

  • Cesare Balbo:

    • Proposed confederation led by Piedmont.

    • Opposed revolution, advocated for gradual reforms; represents the moderate position.

The Revolts of 1820-1821

Events & Impact

  • What Happened: Summer of 1820 revolts in the Kingdom of Two Sicilies and Piedmont.

    • Pattern:

    • Initial Hope: Monarchs promised constitutions.

    • Betrayal: Monarchs broke promises with Austrian military assistance.

    • Result: Revolutions were crushed; however, the Risorgimento (national unification movement) gained traction.

Revolutions of 1848-49: The Turning Point

Background Conditions

  • Economic Crisis (triple threat):

    1. Agricultural Crisis.

    2. Industrial Crisis.

    3. Commercial Crisis.

  • Spread of Democratic Ideas across Europe since the early 1800s, prompting a revolutionary wave.

Key Events (January-March 1848)

  • January 1848: Protests begin in Palermo, Sicily—the first protests in Europe, preceding those in France.

  • Late January: King of Two Sicilies grants the first constitution to an Italian ruler, inspiring a domino effect among other monarchs to issue similar concessions.

    • Constitutions were granted by:

    • Leopold II (Tuscany).

    • Charles Albert (Piedmont).

    • Pope Pius IX (Papal States).

    • Exception: Austrian-controlled territories, which reinforced garrisons instead of granting reforms.

The Five Days of Milan

  • Context: Revolution reaches Vienna and Budapest, critical areas in the Austrian Empire.

  • Key Moments:

    • Citizens, including women and children, fought Austrians in the streets of Milan and Venice.

    • Outcome: The Austrian army was compelled to retreat to the Quadrilateral region near Verona.

First War of Independence (1848-1849)

Charles Albert's Intervention

  • Why He Joined:

    • Opportunity arose as Austrians retreated.

    • Fear of Democrats/republicans potentially taking over protests.

    • Concern that a successful republican neighbor could incite revolts in his own kingdom.

  • Initial Support: Other monarchs initially sent troops to assist.

  • Collapse of Support: The Pope refused to support the war against Catholic Austria, leading Piedmont to fight alone.

Military Outcomes

  • Series of defeats led to the Armistice of Salasco where Charles Albert asked for a ceasefire.

The Republic in Venice

  • Established under the leadership of Manin, surrounded by Austrian troops.

The Roman Republic

  • The Pope fled south, fearing democrat-violence, leading to a short-lived republic (13 months).

  • Leaders:

    • Carlo Armellini, Giuseppe Mazzini, and Hurello Saffi.

  • Radical Reforms:

    • Abolished the death penalty.

    • Provided freedom of religion.

    • Implemented universal male suffrage.

    • Military leadership conducted by Giuseppe Garibaldi, reminiscent of the Paris Commune (radical and short-lived).

Second Round (1849)

  • Post-war Democratic Pressure:

    • Democrats pressured for renewed fighting.

  • Battle of Novara:

    • Resulted in defeat within three days.

  • On the same day, Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son.

  • Armistice of Vignale was signed; the First War of Independence concluded.

Key Realizations After 1848-1849

Focus Shifts

  • Before, focus was on liberties and constitutions; after, focus shifted to the necessity of independence through unification.

  • Why Piedmont Became Hopeful:

    • Charles Albert and Victor Emmanuel II were the only rulers who did not revoke their constitutions.

    • Piedmont was the most economically advanced Italian state ruled by moderates.

    • The Savoy dynasty was viewed as the only trustworthy monarchy by republicans at the time.

Camillo Cavour: The Architect of Unification

  • Background:

    • Young politician with prior roles as minister of agriculture and finance.

    • Became Prime Minister in 1852.

Economic Policies

  • Focused on economic growth:

    • Formulated commercial treaties with European powers.

    • Developed a railroad system.

    • Stimulated industrial development.

Strategy for Unification

  • Philosophy:

    • As a moderate, believed that international policies and diplomacy rather than revolution would resolve the Italian question.

  • Key Insight: Italy required foreign assistance to expel Austrian influence.

Diplomatic Moves

  • 1854-1855: Sent Piedmontese soldiers to the Crimean War.

  • 1856 Congress of Paris:

    • Declared the Austrian presence the primary threat to peace in Italy.

    • Garnered sympathy from British powers.

  • 1858: Secret meeting with Napoleon III at Plombières, securing French military support against Austrian aggression.

Second War of Independence (1859)

Context and Events

  • In June 1859, Austria attacked Piedmont. France supported Piedmont and defeated Austria.

Territorial Gains

  • Lombardy integrated into the Kingdom of Sardinia.

  • As a cost for French support, territories of Nice and Savoy were ceded to Napoleon III.

Aftermath

  • Popular revolts ensued in Florence, Parma, and Modena, resulting in the overthrow of democratic rulers.

  • Provisional governments established by Piedmontese supporters.

Garibaldi and the Expedition of the Thousand (1860)

Background of Garibaldi

  • Garibaldi was a symbol of revolution who fought in South America.

  • A republican by conviction, he recognized the House of Savoy as the best vehicle for unification.

Southern Expedition Mission

  • Organized an expedition in the South to spark a democratic revival.

  • Key Detail: Garibaldi conquered territories in the name of the king.

Tension Between Cavour and Garibaldi

  • Major tension arising from personal animosity and mutual distrust.

  • Cavour feared Garibaldi's popularity might overshadow him and wishes for a republic in the south.

  • Cavour seized initiative and sent the king south.

Meeting at Teano (October 1860)

  • A historic moment where Garibaldi handed over conquered territories to King Victor Emmanuel II.

  • Significance: Garibaldi set aside his republican ideals for the sake of unification.

Fall 1860 Events

  • Former Papal and Bourbon territories voted for annexation to the Kingdom of Sardinia, leading to the creation of "New Italy."

Third War of Independence (1866)

Context

  • Occurred during the war between Austria and Prussia (German unification).

  • Italy allied with Prussia to obtain further territory.

Results

  • Italy experienced losses in all military engagements.

  • However, Prussia defeated Austria in the North.

  • Outcome: Through Prussian victory and negotiations mediated by Napoleon III, Italy successfully obtained Venetia.

Aftermath of Unification

  • Famous Quote: "We have made Italy, now we must make Italians."

  • Problem: Public dissatisfaction learning toward a lack of identification as Italians due to government issues.

Piedmontization (Piedmontizzazione) Policy

Definition and Implementation

  • Piedmontization: The policy of extending Piedmontese laws, customs, and practices across Italy.

  • No new constitution initiated, simply the extension of the Piedmontese one.

  • Centralized control exercised through prefects (officials appointed by Rome).

Consequences of Piedmontization

  • Resulted in widespread anger in the South.

  • Destroyed beneficial aspects of regional governance.

  • Delayed economic progress in the Southern regions, exacerbating the longstanding North/South divide.