October 1st HW Notes A

History of Korean Architecture

Chapter 3: Ancient Architecture in the Silla and Balhae Kingdoms: From Mid-7th to 8th Centuries

Section 1: Changes to Cities and Residential Buildings

• The Baekje kingdom collapsed in 660 CE, leading to ancient southern Korea becoming part of the Silla kingdom.

• Goguryeo regime fell in 668 CE, resulting in the formation of the Balhae kingdom, which controlled northern Korea and the upper Yalu River region.

• King Munmu of Silla unified these regions under his rule, strengthening royal power while keeping the nobility weak.

• Magnificent architectural and decorative works in Gyeongju, the capital, were celebrated as a result of strong royal authority.

• Bang-li-je, an urban planning scheme from before the United Silla era, was implemented widely in Gyeongju.

• New palaces and pleasure places were constructed alongside grand bridges linking the capital to the provinces.

• Strong central government was maintained for nearly a century through the reigns of Kings Munmu, Sinmun, and Gyeongdeok, leading Gyeongju to develop into a glorious capital city.

• The city’s population boomed; according to the "Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms" (Samguk-yusa), Gyeongju reached a population of about 170,000.

• Growth was organized into new neighborhoods structured around a grid pattern of streets (bang) that characterized the original city layout.

• Gyeongju's boundaries likely extended 4 kilometers outward from the city center, encompassing at least 360 bang.

• The street layout was expanded to cover the entire capital area, representing much new construction, including at least one new palace.

• Archaeological evidence suggests a newer palace was built at the northern edge of the city, which was accessed from the city center via a broad avenue.

• Excavations in Seongdong-ri indicate this palace complex was subdivided into several rectangular sections connected by covered passages.

• The "Historic Records of the Three Kingdoms" (Samguk-sagi) recounts that King Munmu dug a pond and built a hill at a palace site in 674 CE, where he raised rare animals and planned improvements.

• Dong-gung (East Palace) was built in 679 CE.

• King Munmu’s ambitious project to reconstruct Gyeongju was abandoned after consultation with a high priest.

• The pond dug by King Munmu is now Anap-ji (Wild Goose and Duck Pond), still evident today.

• The pond, measuring 180 meters long (north-south) by 200 meters wide (east-west), harmonizes artificial and natural landscapes for surrounding palace buildings.

• Features like a masonry retaining wall added visual elements, with scenic views of the pond from buildings on or near the wall.

• Oddly shaped stones emphasized natural topography and referenced the Twelve Peaks of Mount Musan in China's Sichuan province.

• Archaeological excavation revealed a small 16-sided object inscribed with phrases suggesting leisure games enjoyed by the Silla nobility, exemplifying a lifestyle of relaxation.

• Anap-ji is considered the most significant ruin for Silla landscape design, showcasing the harmonious blend of human design and nature.

• By 760 CE, under King Gyeongdeok, grand bridges were constructed over the Muncheon River in Gyeongju to promote trade.

• These structures exemplified Silla's engineering prowess and served as symbols of royal pride.

• Woljeong-gyo was the largest of Gyeongju's bridges, spanning 70 meters and supported by four piers, which were diamond-shaped to facilitate water flow.

• Numerous stones with holes were found around the bridge piers, though their purpose remains unclear.

• Excavations indicated a wooden lattice structure formed the actual bridge frame, and a majestic stone lion statue was uncovered.

• Historical records detail similarly designed bridges like Chunhyang-gyo (Iljeong-gyo), presumably similar to Woljeong-gyo.

• Silla’s central government organized various administrative offices to oversee construction projects, replicating a Chinese civil service model.

• Notable offices included:

  • Gyeongseong-jujak-jeon - managed capital city repairs

  • Yejak-bu - supervised construction of government facilities

  • Seong-jeon - responsible for temple repairs

  • Various other bureaus for securing materials and overseeing palace repairs

• The Gongjang-bu managed master builders and national memorial services in Silla.

• The Jeoneup-seo bureau oversaw architects for government buildings and noble residences.

• This organizational structure differed from the less formal approaches in the Three Kingdoms period.

• Silla’s military functioned as a labor force enabling large construction projects.

• An 8th-century text, "Yeongcheon Cheongjae Bijeongwon Suchigi," described military laborers engaged in construction operations needing thousands of workers, showcasing the capabilities of military units involved in national projects.

• The Oksa-jo, a chapter in the Samguk-sagi, structured residential architecture regulations according to social classes:

  • True-bone (jin-gol), Head-rank six (yuk-dupum), Head-rank five (o-dupum), Head-rank four (sa-dupum/commoners).

• Building laws dictated dimensions, materials, and architectural features for residences based on class.

  • For example:

  • Room widths:

  • Jin-gol: max 24 cheok

  • Yuk-dupum: max 21 cheok

  • O-dupum: max 18 cheok

  • Sa-dupum: max 15 cheok

  • Specific architectural elements such as bracket sets, roof structures, tiles, and decorations were restricted by social class.

  • Example restrictions on materials include:

  • Jin-gol could have multiple-level stone platforms (up to three) while lower classes had restrictions against constructing such platforms.

  • Use of luxury Tang-style tiles and certain ornamental decorations were prohibited for lower classes.

• Oksa-jo regulations highlight the homogenous nature of Silla's residential architecture, influenced by social ranking, with distinctive features including verandas, fences, and gates described in the Samguk-sagi.

Section 2: Universal Expression of Architecture in East Asian Context

• Following the emergence of Silla, architectural styles in Gyeongju reflected Tang Chinese cultural influence.

• This influence reached beyond Silla to Japan, marking a trend toward homogenization of East Asian architecture during the late 7th century.

• Silla’s new Buddhist temples reflected a shift to two-pagoda style layouts, differing from the single-pagoda style favored by Baekje.

• Sacheonwang and Mangdeok Temples were two key examples built in Gyeongju to embrace this style shortly after Silla's formation.

• Sacheonwang temple built in 679 CE, aligned central structures along the north-south axis, with pagodas placed in front of the main halls.

• Mangdeok temple, completed in 685 CE, was noted in Samguk-sagi for formerly housing a 13-story wooden pagoda.

• While double-pagoda temples became dominant in Silla, single-pagoda designs were rarely constructed, indicating a cultural evolution in Buddhist architectural styles.

• Temples transitioned to differentiate the main sanctuaries with distinct spiritual centers featuring pagodas housing statues rather than relics.

• In contrast to the single-pagoda structure, double-pagoda designs became culturally significant emblems of power and superiority, emulated by both Korean and Japanese nobility.

• The adaptation of Tang architectural styles extended into everyday construction, such as the evolution of bracket systems (cheomcha).

• Newer constructions showcased sophisticated features such as curved shapes in brackets and sophisticated design elements echoed in contemporary Chinese architecture.

• Silla’s architectural sophistication was captured in artworks and paintings of the period, indicating enhanced craftsmanship reinforcing royal aesthetics.

Section 3: Authentic Silla Stonecraft

• Silla's architectural prowess was evident in unique stone pagodas showcasing indigenous creativity.

• Gameun temple, one of the earliest structures to construct two stone pagodas rather than wood, was built to counteract Japanese threats.

• The temple layout included a rectangular layout with connected structures featuring a large stone known as Daewangam, claimed to be King Munmu’s tomb.

• The architectural nuances included a floating stone floor and an underground passage for access, illustrating advanced stonemasonry skills.

• The temple’s two three-story stone pagodas showcased balance and refinement using indigenous craftsmanship distinct from wood pagodas seen in earlier periods.

• Balhae adopted prior Baekje stone pagoda principles into their constructions, emphasizing Silla’s prowess in stone design distinct from contemporaneous Chinese and Japanese styles.

• Stone pagoda structures typically consisted of the base, body, and top, showing advancements in design and artistic interpretation over generations.

• Gameun’s pagodas, while simple, were designed with a sense of grandeur.

• Other notable pagodas include the five-story Nawon-ri pagoda and the three-story Guhwang-dong pagoda, showcasing the architecture of the Silla period.

• The pagoda stylistic evolution culminated in Bulguk temple's Seokga-tap, reflecting artistic refinement distinct from prior constructions.

Section 4: New Trends in Buddhist Architecture

• The influx of new Buddhist sects from China led to the construction of larger temples across Korea.

• Silla's architectural offerings transitioned from solely protective spaces for royalty to inclusive institutions facilitating access for broader religious communities.

• Prominent Buddhist sects incorporated included Hwaeom and Yusik-ron, influencing temple designs and organization.

• Goseon temple, designed under monk Wonhyo, exemplified the spatial divisions geared towards accommodating distinct worship practices.

• Bulguk temple highlighted the synthesis of various Buddhist sects, representing philosophies from Mahayana to Pure-Land concepts, showcasing a remarkable unity within its architecture while also delineating individual worship spaces.

• The use of stone to imitate wood architecture at Bulguk temple showcased advanced construction skills while symbolizing religious devotion.

• Seokguram Grotto demonstrated the culmination of Silla's architectural prowess with an intricate cave temple form housing numerous deities.

• Building structures across Silla were carefully constructed with thoughtful consideration of natural surroundings and religious symbolism.

Section 5: Architecture of the Balhae Kingdom

• Balhae kingdom emerged in 698, founded by Goguryeo elites, developing a distinct architectural identity by merging Goguryeo and Tang influences.

• Balhae’s cities featured essentially Chinese-style city layouts with well-organized palatial complexes reflecting authoritative governance.

• The five main cities of the Balhae included Sang-gyeong, Jung-gyeong, Dong-gyeong, Seo-gyeong, and Nam-gyeong.

• Longquan Fu was the first settlement, featuring geometric urban design principles absent in the natural landscape.

• Palaces reflect Balhae elite's commitment to Chinese architectural traditions while attempting to assert their cultural identity through integrated indigenous practices.

• Residential architecture adhered closely to the elite’s comfort and political requirements while still incorporating older traditions, such as ondol heating systems.

• The burial customs revealed a lineage to Goguryeo traditions while emphasizing a blend of older burial practices with Balhae innovations.

• Balhae architecture, laden with cultural dualities, ascribed to the ideals of both the elite and local populace, continuing to shape Korean architectural evolution into the future.