Diversity Of Living Things

Final Exam Review

1. What is the scientific classification of organisms? (in order of most number of organism to least number of organisms)

• Domain: Broadest category (e.g., Archaea, Bacteria, Eukarya).

• Kingdom: Largest group within each domain (e.g., Animalia, Plantae, Protista, Fungi, Eubacteria, Archaebacteria).

• Phylum (or Division in plants)

• Class

• Order

• Family

• Genus

• Species: Smallest and most specific group (unique organisms capable of interbreeding).

2. What are the differences between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells?

• Prokaryotic Cells:

  • No nucleus or membrane-bound organelles.

  • DNA in a single, circular chromosome in the cytoplasm.

  • Smaller and simpler structure (e.g., Escherichia coli, Streptococcus).

  • Reproduce via binary fission.

  • Have cell walls (except in some species, e.g., Mycoplasma).

• Eukaryotic Cells:

  • Have a nucleus containing DNA.

  • Contain membrane-bound organelles (e.g., mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus).

  • Larger and more complex (e.g., animals, plants, fungi).

  • Reproduce via mitosis or meiosis.

  • Some have cell walls (e.g., plants, fungi).

3. What are the key characteristics (including nutrition, locomotion, etc.) of the following kingdoms? Give an example of organisms found in each kingdom.

d) Eubacteria

• Characteristics:

  • Unicellular, prokaryotic organisms.

  • Cell wall made of peptidoglycan.

  • Can be autotrophic (photosynthetic) or heterotrophic (e.g., decomposers).

  • Some have flagella for movement.

• Examples:

  • Escherichia coli (E. coli)

    

  • Streptococcus

    

  • Salmonella

    

e) Archaebacteria

• Characteristics:

  • Unicellular, prokaryotic organisms.

  • Live in extreme environments (e.g., hot springs, deep-sea vents).

  • Cell wall lacks peptidoglycan.

  • Autotrophic (often via chemosynthesis).

• Examples:

  • Methanogens (found in the intestines of ruminants, producing methane)

  • Halophiles (found in salty environments, e.g., the Great Salt Lake)

  • Thermophiles (found in hot springs).

f) Protista

• Characteristics:

  • Unicellular eukaryotes, some multicellular.

  • Can be autotrophic (e.g., algae) or heterotrophic (e.g., protozoa).

  • Some are motile via flagella, cilia, or pseudopodia.

  • Live in moist environments (e.g., ponds, oceans).

• Examples:

  • Amoeba (moves via pseudopodia)

    

  • Paramecium (moves via cilia)

    

  • Plasmodium (causes malaria)

  • Euglena (both autotrophic and heterotrophic)

    

g) Fungi

• Characteristics:

  • Mostly multicellular (except yeasts, which are unicellular).

  • Eukaryotic, heterotrophic via absorption.

  • Cell walls made of chitin.

  • Reproduce via spores (sexual and asexual).

  • Non-motile.

• Examples:

  • Mushrooms (e.g., Agaricus bisporus)

    

  • Yeasts (e.g., Saccharomyces cerevisiae)

    

  • Molds (e.g., Penicillium).

    

h) Animalia

• Characteristics:

  • Multicellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophic.

  • No cell walls.

  • Most are motile at some stage of their life cycle.

  • Reproduce sexually (most species).

• Examples:

  • Humans

  • Dogs

  • Fish

  • Insects (e.g., Butterflies, Beetles).

i) Plantae

• Characteristics:

  • Multicellular, eukaryotic, autotrophic (photosynthetic).

  • Cell walls made of cellulose.

  • Non-motile.

  • Reproduce sexually (through flowers) and asexually (e.g., vegetative propagation).

• Examples:

  • Oak tree

  • Moss

  • Flowers (e.g., Rose, Sunflower)

  • Algae (e.g., Chlorella).

4. Draw and label a typical virus and a typical bacterial cell.

• Typical Virus:

  • Structure:

    • Capsid (protein coat)

    • Nucleic acid core (DNA or RNA)

    • Some viruses have an outer lipid envelope (e.g., influenza virus).

    • No cellular structures (e.g., no organelles, mitochondria).

• Typical Bacterial Cell:

  • Structure:

    • Cell membrane

    • Cell wall (peptidoglycan)

    • Cytoplasm

    • Ribosomes

    • Circular DNA (no nucleus)

    • Some may have flagella or pili for movement and attachment.

5. What are the differences between a bacteria and a virus?

• Bacteria:

  • Prokaryotic cells with a full set of cellular structures (e.g., ribosomes, cytoplasm, cell membrane).

  • Can live and reproduce on their own through binary fission.

  • Can be treated with antibiotics (e.g., Penicillin works on bacterial infections).

  • Can be beneficial (gut bacteria) or harmful (pathogens, e.g., Salmonella).

• Viruses:

  • Not cellular; made of a protein coat and nucleic acid (DNA or RNA).

  • Cannot reproduce on their own; require a host cell to replicate.

  • Cannot be treated with antibiotics.

  • Cause diseases (e.g., influenza, HIV, COVID-19).

6. Why are viruses considered to be non-living?

Non-living Characteristics:

• No metabolism: Viruses do not carry out metabolic processes or energy production on their own.

• No cellular structure: Lack organelles like ribosomes or mitochondria.

• Need a host to replicate: Viruses must infect a host cell to reproduce.

• Cannot respond to stimuli: Unlike living organisms, viruses do not exhibit growth or responses to their environment.

7. Textbook questions: Page 12 # 1, 5, 12

8. Textbook Questions: Page 64 # 1, 3, 5-7, 11, 17, 23

9. Textbook Questions: Page 89 # 3, 6, 9, 13-15, 21, 22, 44, 46

Practical Lab Exam Review Diversity

6 Kingdoms

Animalia

Multicellular, eukaryotic organisms that are heterotrophic (consume other organisms for food), and most are capable of movement at some stage of life.

• Lion (Panthera leo) – Mammal, carnivorous predator.

• Housefly (Musca domestica) – Insect, scavenger.

• Blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) – Marine mammal, largest animal on Earth.

Plantae

Multicellular, eukaryotic organisms that are autotrophic (perform photosynthesis), have cell walls made of cellulose, and are generally non-motile.

• Oak tree (Quercus robur) – Large, woody tree.

• Fern (Pteridium aquilinum) – Non-flowering vascular plant.

• Moss (Bryophyta) – Small, non-vascular plants typically found in moist environments.

Fungi

Eukaryotic organisms that are mostly multicellular (except yeasts), heterotrophic, and absorb nutrients through external digestion (saprotrophic or parasitic).

• Mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) – Edible, multicellular fungi.

• Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) – Single-celled fungus used in baking and brewing.

• Mold (Penicillium chrysogenum) – Fungus that grows on decaying organic matter.

Protista

Mostly unicellular, eukaryotic organisms. Some are autotrophic (algae), and others are heterotrophic (protozoa). They live in moist or aquatic environments.

• Amoeba (Amoeba proteus) – Single-celled, heterotrophic organism that moves by pseudopodia.

• Euglena (Euglena gracilis) – Single-celled organism that can photosynthesize and move using a flagellum.

• Paramecium (Paramecium caudatum) – Ciliated protozoan, found in freshwater.

Archaea

Unicellular, prokaryotic organisms that often live in extreme environments (extremophiles). Their cell walls and biochemistry differ from bacteria.

• Thermophiles (Thermococcus species) – Heat-loving archaea found in hot springs.

• Halophiles (Halobacterium species) – Salt-loving archaea, often found in salt lakes.

• Methanogens (Methanobacterium species) – Methane-producing archaea, found in swampy areas and the guts of animals.

Bacteria

Unicellular, prokaryotic organisms. They are found in almost every environment on Earth and have a wide range of nutritional modes (autotrophic, heterotrophic, etc.).

• Escherichia coli (E. coli) – Common bacterium in the intestines of animals, can be harmful or benign.

• Streptococcus pyogenes – Bacterium that causes strep throat and other infections.

• Cyanobacteria (Anabaena species) – Photosynthetic bacteria, often found in aquatic environments.

Terms

Eukaryotic - Organisms whose cells contain a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Eukaryotic cells are typically more complex than prokaryotic cells.

• Example: Humans (*Homo sapiens*), Amoeba (*Amoeba proteus*), Oak tree (*Quercus robur*).

Bacilli - Rod-shaped bacteria. Bacilli can be found in various environments and are known for their elongated, cylindrical shape.

• Example: Bacillus subtilis – A soil bacterium that is often used in research and biotechnology.

Prokaryotic - Organisms whose cells do not have a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles. Prokaryotic cells are simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells.

• Example: Escherichia coli (*E. coli*) – A common bacterium in the intestines of animals, which can also cause infections.

Spirilla - Spiral-shaped bacteria. These bacteria typically have a helical shape and are often found in aquatic environments.

• Example: Spirillum volutans – A type of spiral-shaped bacterium found in freshwater.

Cocci - Spherical or round-shaped bacteria. They can exist as single cells or in various arrangements (e.g., pairs, chains, or clusters).

• Example: Streptococcus pyogenes – A bacterium that causes strep throat and other infections.

Pseudopod - Temporary, cytoplasmic extensions used by certain eukaryotic cells (like amoebas) for movement and feeding. They are formed by the cell’s cytoskeleton.

• Example: Amoeba (*Amoeba proteus*) – A single-celled organism that uses pseudopodia for locomotion and engulfing food particles.

Cillia - Short, hair-like structures that protrude from the surface of some eukaryotic cells. Cilia are used for movement or for moving substances over the cell surface.

• Example: Paramecium (*Paramecium caudatum*) – A protozoan that uses cilia for movement and feeding.

Flagella - Long, whip-like structures that extend from the surface of some cells, used for movement. Flagella can be found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

• Example: Euglena (*Euglena gracilis*) – A protist that uses a flagellum for movement.

Heterotrophic - Organisms that obtain their food by consuming other organisms (either plants or animals). Heterotrophs cannot make their own food through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.

• Example: Lion (*Panthera leo*) – A carnivorous mammal that feeds on other animals.

Autotropic - Organisms that produce their own food, typically through photosynthesis (using light energy) or chemosynthesis (using chemical energy). Autotrophs are self-sustaining.

• Example: Green algae (*Chlorella*) – A plant-like protist that performs photosynthesis.

Invertebrate - Animals that do not have a backbone or vertebral column. Invertebrates make up the majority of animal species on Earth.

•  Example: Jellyfish (*Aurelia aurita*) – A marine invertebrate that lacks a backbone.

Vertebrate - Animals that possess a backbone or spinal column. Vertebrates belong to the subphylum Vertebrata and include a wide variety of animals.

• Example: Human (*Homo sapiens*) – A mammal with a backbone.

Drawing/label

Bacteria

Protist

Paramecium [animal-like/Protozoa]

Amoeba [animal-like/Protozoa]

Euglena [plant-like/animal-like]

Chlorella [fungi-like/Slime Molds]

Fungi

Fungi

Yeast

Prokaryote, Protista & Fungi Lab

Notes:

Bacteria have three basic shapes:

• Bacilli, or rod-shaped

  

• Cocci, or sphere-shaped

  

• Spirilla, or spiral shaped

  

Bacteria can also arrange themselves into colonies. Each arrangement is given a special name:

• (prefix) Diplo-, meaning paired ex: diplococcus, a pair of sphere-shaped bacteria

• (prefix) Strepto-, meaning chain ex: streptobacilli, a chain of rod-shaped bacteria

• Tetrad, meaning group or four note: this is not a prefix. You would just say "tetrad cocci bacteria"

• (prefix) Staphylo-, meaning random ex: staphylococcus, a random arrangement of sphere-shaped bacteria

  

Amoeba

A protist is any eukaryote that cannot be classified as a plant, animal, or fungus. There are several types of protists. We will be learning about three types of protists: protozoans, algae, and decomposers. In this lab you will be observing a type of protist called a protozoan. A protozoan is a protist that is like an animal. All protozoans are heterotrophs and hunt or search for their food. One-way protozoans are classified into groups is by how they move. In general, there are three ways protozoans move: by pseudopods, by cilia, or by flagella. An amoeba is unicellular and moves by using pseudopods. A pseudopod is a temporary bulge that forms in the cell membrane as a result of the movement of the cytoplasm. The word pseudopod means "false foot." The pseudopod has two functions, or uses: 1. to move , 2. to capture food. The picture on the web site shows an example of a pseudopod in an amoeba.

Paramecium

A paramecium is unicellular and moves by using cilia. Cilia are short, hair like structures that are found on the surface of the organism. Cilia have three uses: 1. movement, 2.capture food, 3. sensing the environment.

Euglena

Now you will observe a type of protist called an algae. All algae are plant like protists. This is because they are autotrophs. They use photosynthesis to make their own food. The algae you will observe today is called a euglena. It is a type of euglenoid. Euglena are examples of algae because its cell contains chloroplast which allow it to carry out photosynthesis. However, scientists have observed that euglena can also be heterotrophs; they can also eat to obtain energy! Euglena also have adaptations that help them survive. For example, they have flagella that allow them to move, a pellicle which gives them their shape, and an eye spot which is used to help detect the location of light. In fact, if you place euglena in a container, place it by a sunny window, and cover half the container, the euglena will move to the sunny side!

Fungi

1. What did Alexander Fleming observe that led to the discovery of penicillin?

In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin by accident. He noticed that a mold called Penicillium notatum had developed on a petri dish containing colonies of Staphylococcus bacteria. The area around the mold was free of bacteria, suggesting that the mold was releasing a substance that killed the bacteria. This substance was later identified as penicillin, a groundbreaking antibiotic.

2. What does penicillin do?

Penicillin is an antibiotic that kills or inhibits the growth of bacteria. It works by interfering with the formation of bacterial cell walls, which are essential for bacterial survival. Specifically, penicillin targets an enzyme involved in the synthesis of peptidoglycan, a key component of the bacterial cell wall. Without this protection, the bacteria rupture and die, especially in environments where the bacteria are exposed to osmotic pressure, like inside the human body.

3. Where was penicillin isolated from?

Penicillin was isolated from the mold Penicillium notatum (now Penicillium chrysogenum), which was originally found growing on a petri dish in Fleming's laboratory. The mold produced penicillin, which could then be extracted and purified for use as an antibiotic.

4. What did scientists need to do to grow Penicillium notatum in deep fermentation vats?

In order to produce penicillin in large quantities for medical use, scientists had to develop methods for growing Penicillium notatum (later identified as Penicillium chrysogenum) in large fermentation vats. This process involved several key steps:

• Optimizing growth conditions: The mold needed specific conditions, including the right temperature, pH, and nutrient levels, to produce penicillin efficiently.

• Improving strain selection: Researchers developed high-yielding strains of Penicillium by cultivating and selecting those that produced more penicillin. The strain Penicillium chrysogenum (previously Penicillium notatum) was found to be more effective.

• Fermentation technology: Scientists used large fermentation tanks, or vats, where the mold could grow in a controlled liquid medium containing sugars, salts, and other nutrients. The fermentation process was designed to maximize the production of penicillin.

• Extraction and purification: Once the mold had produced penicillin, it had to be extracted from the fermentation broth. This process involved filtration and various chemical methods to purify the penicillin for use.

These advances allowed penicillin to be produced at scale, which was crucial for its widespread use during World War II and afterward.

Dichotomous Key Lab

Notes:

• A dichotomous classification key presents the user with two opposite statements about some trait or characteristic of an organism. By choosing the statement that best describes the unknown organism, the user is led to further pairs of statements. By going from one set of statements to another, the name of the organism or its classification group is finally determined.

• A phylogenetic tree represents evolutional relationships, whereas a dichotomous key does not.

• However, both analyze the similarities and differences and therefore help in the classification of organisms.

In constructing keys, keep the following in mind:

• Use constant characteristics rather than variable ones.

• Use measurements rather than terms like "large" and "small".

• Use characteristics that are generally available to the user of the key rather than seasonal characteristics or those seen only in the field.

• Make the choice a positive one - something "is" instead of "is not".

• If possible, start both choices of a pair with the same word.

• If possible, start different pairs of choices with different words.

• Precede the descriptive terms with the name of the part to which they apply.

Spider Key

Dichotomous Key

Dichotomous Key Gizmo

Notes:

The scientific name is shown in italics. Scientific names have two parts: the genus name and the species name.

e.g. Phoebastria albatrus

A dichotomous key can help you identify an organism using its characteristics, or traits. The keys in this Gizmo use only physical traits, such as feather color, to identify organisms. In some cases, behavioral traits are used in dichotomous keys. For example, some frog species can be identified by their croaks.

Psychical traits such as tail shape, wing shape, head shape, beak shape and colors can be used to help identify organism.

Limitations of Dichotomous Keys

Dichotomous keys rely on physical traits to identify a species but does not take in account its habits or other traits/characteristics. For example, flying squirrels and sugar gliders are very similar appearance wise and can be classified as the same thing by mistake.

Identifying Organisms

Notice how all are species of buttercups and are identified by their genus, Ranunculus. They are then differentiated further into their species such as acris, aquatilis, etc. This is how the buttercups are told apart.

Traits like the color of the petals, the length of the stem, the shape of the petals, the amount of petals were all traits that helped me identify each flower. The traits I found to be the most useful are the stem length, shape of petal and the amount of petals.

Creating a Dichotomous Key to Identify Organisms

1. Ask questions, must be able to be answered with a yes or no

   What is one trait that could be used to separate these albatrosses into two groups of two birds each? Ans: Yellow and pink beaks

2. Use this trait to write statement set #1 in the table below. The statements should be mutually exclusive. In other words, either the albatross has that trait or it doesn’t.

3. Observe the albatrosses described by statement #1a. Identify one trait that could be used to differentiate these organisms and use it to write statement set #2. Repeat this step for the albatrosses described by statement #1b.

Microscope Lab

Notes:

Recall…

1.1 Biodiversity

Importance of Biodiversity

• Every organism on this planet is impacted by the actions and presents of another organism. Yes, even the pesky fly or that annoying mosquito! If a species of organism was to disappear or go extinct then another species will be affected. This is why Biodiversity is so important.

BIODIVERSITY

• is the variety of life on Earth. This ranges from the smallest organisms such as bacteria to the largest animal such as the Blue Whale. Biodiversity is a product of evolutionary change that has occurred over millions of years as organisms adapt to meet the changes in their environment.

• When this change is accelerated, e.g. due to climate change or human action, organisms cannot adapt fast enough and eventually go extinct. While extinction is a natural process (generally, a species will last for an average of 2–10 million years), species and ecosystems today are threatened with destruction at a rate rarely seen in history

Types of Diversity

GENETIC DIVERSITY

• GENETIC DIVERSITY: The total number of different genes present in a species.

• Within a species there are slight differences in the genes which allow for variability in the species (the reason why you look different from the person beside you). These differences allow individuals to be unique.

• They also allow populations to adjust and adapt to environmental changes and transform over time. This ensures the survival of the species. When genetic diversity is not present (e.g. monocultures of crops) then the whole population can be wiped out by the same threat (e.g. virus) therefore becoming extinct.

SPECIES DIVERSITY

• SPECIES DIVERSITY: Refers to the number and variety of species in a given area.

• Having a variety of species allows ecosystems to survive environmental impacts such as drought or disease. Each species have specific functions to perform in order to maintain that ecosystem. Without that species the ecosystem may not survive.

ECOSTSTEM DIVERSITY

• ECOSTSTEM DIVERSITY: is dependent on the physical characteristics of the environment, the diversity of species present, and the interactions that the species have with each other and with the environment.

• India, for instance, with its deserts, rain forests, mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands, estuaries, and alpine meadows has greater ecosystem diversity than a Scandinavian country like Norway.

• Any change to one part will have some effect on the entire ecosystem and impact the biodiversity of the area. Ecosystems with high biodiversity tend to be healthier and more resilient to changes in the environment.

Why is Biodiversity so Important?

• The biodiversity found on Earth today is the product of 3.5 billion years of evolution. In fact, the Earth supports more biodiversity today than in any other period in history. However, much of this biodiversity is now facing the threat of extinction because of the actions of humans.

• Most of us believe that all life has a right to exist. But speaking more selfishly for humans, biodiversity is the foundation on which human life depends. Plants and animals provide food and medicine, rivers provide precious drinking water, and trees absorb greenhouse gases and clean the air we breathe. In addition, ecosystems such as forests and wetlands play a huge role in preventing floods and landslides. The world’s poorest rely most on ecosystems for their daily needs, and will be worst affected by biodiversity loss.

1.2 Classification

Taxonomy

• .The science of naming, identifying and classifying living things.

• In the 1750s, Carolus Linnaeus (a Swedish Botanist) developed a two-word naming system called binomial nomenclature which allowed scientists to place organisms into categories based on their Morphology (the physical form and structure of organisms).

• This system resulted in a very specific name for organisms detailing their genus and species (e.g. homo sapiens for humans) and also gave a hierarchy of the broader groups they belonged to. Today, scientists also take into consideration the Phylogeny (the evolutionary development of a group of organisms) when classifying organisms.

• Each level in the hierarchy is termed a taxon.

• The group from Domain to species becomes more specific because each step down narrows the number of organisms within the group.

• At the end, all organisms of a kingdom are divided into species, each species being one certain type of organism, a distinct form of life.

Rules used to write scientific names

Homo sapiens

• An organism’s genus is always written first; the organism’s species is always written second

• The genus is Capitalized; the species is written in lower case

• Scientific names of organisms are always italicized or underlined

Phylogenetic Trees

• A diagram that reflects the hypotheses of evolutionary relationships. The tips of the branches represent the species and the nodes (where the branches meet) represent common ancestors.

Spider & Dichotomous Keys

• In the field of biology, classification plays a major role. With new species being discovered every day, it’s important to have techniques in place to identify and classify them.

• One such tool is the dichotomous key. It helps identify organisms by directing the user to look at the known organisms.

What is a Dichotomous Key

• It is a method used to identify a species by answering a series of questions based on contrasting features (eg: physical characteristics) that have two possible outcomes.

• “Dichotomous” means divided into two parts, hence the dichotomous keys always present two choices based on the key characteristics of the organism in each step. By correctly selecting the right choice at each stage, the user will be able to identify the name of the organism at the end. The further you divide the key, the more you learn about the organism you are trying to identify.

• When creating a dichotomous key, both qualitative (i.e. physical attributes such as how the organism looks, what color it is, etc.) and quantitative (i.e. the number of legs, weight, height, etc.) factors are considered.

Dichotomous Key vs. Spider Key

• It can be done in both a graphical (as a branching flowchart – Spider Key) or written format (series of paired statements organized sequentially – Dichotomous Key).

1.2 DOMAINS & PROKARYOTES VS. EUKARYOTES

DOMAINS

• When classifying life forms, biologists call the broadest taxon a Domain.

• There are three domains:

DOMAIN: BACTERIA & ARCHAEA

• characterized by simple prokaryotic cells (“pro” meaning before, “karyon” meaning nucleus)

  ➥These types of cells lack internal compartments and membrane- bound organelles such as a nucleus, and these organisms are all unicellular.

DOMAIN: EUKARYA

• (“Eu” meaning good or true nucleus)

  ➥All other cells fall into this category and have a membrane- bound nucleus and organelles. They also tend to be larger and can be multi-cellular.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES:

THE 6 KINGDOMS

• There are 6 broad groups into which organisms are placed. These groups were created based on the current ideas about evolutionary relationships among organisms.

THE MONERANS: KINGDOM EUBACTERIA & KINGDOM ARCHAEBACTERIA

• This is composed of two main groups : Kingdom Eubacteria and Kingdom Archaebacteria.

• The main differences between the two are their cell structures. Eukaryotes have cell walls with peptidoglycan, a coat of sugars and archaebacteria do not. These organisms are all prokaryotes.

KINGDOM PROTISTA

• composed of protozoa (animal-like forms) and certain simple algae. Protists are usually unicellular. Some are heterotrophic (eat other living things); others are autotrophic (make their own food).

KINGDOM FUNGI

• Mainly multicellular organisms that are heterotrophic and absorb small food molecules from dead or decaying matter.

KINGDOM PLANTAE

• Composed of multicellular, autotrophic organisms. Plants generally have a complex structure. Certain complex algae are found in this group.

KINGDOM ANIMALIA

• Composed of multicellular organisms that are usually mobile. They are heterotrophic and ingest (take in bits of food not yet digested) their food. All, but sponges, have nerve cells.

Kingdoms Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia are all composed of Eukaryotic cells.

2.1 The Prokaryotes Bacteria Kingdom Archaebacteria & Kingdom Eubacteria

Kingdom Archaebacteria & Kingdom Eubacteria

• All are single celled Prokaryotes

• Have no membrane bound organelles

• Have ribosomes that are smaller than those found in Eukaryotic cells

• Have a single chromosome

• Reproduce by Binary Fission (asexual reproduction)

Generalized Bacterial Cell

Structure:

• Have cell wall

• Some disease causing bacteria have a capsule that helps the cell cling to surfaces & protect it from the host’s immune system.

• Many bacteria have flagella for movement

• Some have pili (hair like structures) that enable them to cling to foods.

A. CLASSIFICATION

2 Kingdoms:

Archaebacteria

• Archaebacteria - the oldest group of organisms on the Earth.

• Often live without oxygen

• Live in harsh conditions (i.e. high salt, high temperatures, high acidity)

• Scientists hypothesis that all living things are decedents from this ancestral group.

• e.g. Thermophiles, Halophiles, Methanogens

Eubacteria

• Eubacteria - Accounts for most prokaryotes

• Are more successful than Archaebacteria

• e.g. E. coli, Anthrax, blue green algae

B. General Shapes

Bacillus (Rod)

• many helpful bacteria with some being pathogenic.

• e.g. E.coli

Coccus (round)

• Gonorrhea, Pneumonia - diplococcus

• Yogurt making, Strep throat - Streptococcus (Chains)

• Food poisoning - Staphylococcus (Clusters/Groups)

Spirilla ( always single)

• Fresh water

C. Respiration & Nutrition

Respiration

1. Obligate aerobes - can only grow with O2 (e.g. tuberculosis bacteria)

2. Obligate anaerobes - can only grow without O2 (found in deep soils, water sediments)

3. Facultative anaerobes - can survive with or without O2 (most bacteria)

Nutrition

• Most are Heterotrophs - obtain nutrients from other organisms (e.g. decomposers - bacteria in cow’s stomach, in your intestines - beneficial)

• Some are parasites - obtain nutrients and cause harm to the host - disease causing (5%).

• Some are Autotrophic (Photosynthetic) contain chlorophyll and use sunlight to produce food (cyanobacteria)

• Chemosynthetic - use chemical energy rather than sunlight (e.g. iron, sulphur, methane)

D. Gram Stain

• Separates bacteria into two groups depending on whether or not they absorb a particular stain

• Gram Positive - absorb the stain

• Gram negative - do not absorb the stain

• more resistant to antibiotics

E. Reproduction and Growth

• Reproduce Asexually by Binary Fission

• The single strand of bacterial DNA replicates and is separated into 2 identical cells.

• Sexual reproduction is not common in bacteria, but it can occur by Conjugation.

• In conjugation plasmids are transferred from a donor cell to a recipient by a cytoplasmic bridge.

2.1 Harmful Bacteria

• Bacteria can cause disease symptoms in a variety of ways. In some cases, their sheer numbers place such a tremendous burden on the host’s tissues that they interfere with normal functions. In other cases, they actually destroy cells and tissues or produce poisons called toxins.

• Some of the best known bacterial diseases are tuberculosis, diphtheria, typhoid fever, and bubonic plague. The water contamination in Walkerton, ON was caused by a deadly strain of E. coli.

Types of Food Poisoning

Staphylococcus Aureus

• Is a type of bacteria that lives everywhere, including our skin and throat. The toxin it produces is responsible for food poisoning. When it gets on food that is allowed to get warm it multiplies. The more bacteria, the more toxic. Regular cooking does not destroy Staphylococcus. Keep food cool until you cook it, then refrigerate.

Salmonella

• Bacteria found in raw foods such as eggs, poultry, meat and unpasteurized milk. Cooking of food kills salmonella. Prevent cross contamination by washing hands and utensils. Causes diarrhea.

Botulism

• Is a deadly food poison. It grows best in an anaerobic environment. Found in improperly canned foods. Do not eat canned foods that show swelling.

Parasite

• Is any organism, which enters the body, lives off the cells and causes harm to its host. (Can be a virus, bacteria, fungus, Animal (e.g. tick))

Exotoxin

• Is a chemical made by bacteria that causes harm. Exotoxins are secreted by the bacteria and carried by the blood to affect out organs.

Bacteremia

• Bacteria circulates in the blood without causing disease. The immune system can control the infection.

Septicemia

• Bacteria circulates in the blood and causes disease. The immune system cannot control the infection.

Antibiotics

• Chemicals produced synthetically or by microorganisms (such as fungi) that inhibit the growth of or destroy certain other microorganisms.

• Use of antibiotics began in the mid- 1940s. Researchers have since identified more than twenty-five hundred naturally occurring antibiotics. However, in the past 50 years, many disease causing bacteria have developed resistance to antibiotics.

Antibiotic Resistance

• Antibiotic resistance develops from variations within a bacterial population. When bacteria are first exposed to an antibiotic, the weaker strains of the bacteria are killed. Other members may have slight genetic variations that allow them to survive the antibiotics. These individuals survive and reproduce passing on their resistance to the next generation.

• Scientists believe that bacteria that contain R (resistance) factors cause the most common type of bacterial resistance to antibiotics. These R factors are plasmids with special genes that code for enzymes that inactivate specific drugs. The plasmids can be transferred and recombined in conjugation (bacterial sexual reproduction).

Ways to Reduce the Rise of Resistant Bacteria

1. Take antibiotics exactly as the doctor prescribes. Do not skip doses. Complete the prescribed course of treatment, even when you start feeling better.

2. Only take antibiotics prescribed for you; do not share or use leftover antibiotics. Antibiotics treat specific types of infections. Taking the wrong medicine may delay correct treatment and allow bacteria to multiply.

3. Do not save antibiotics for the next illness. Discard any leftover medication once the prescribed course of treatment is completed.

4. Do not ask for antibiotics when your doctor thinks you do not need them. Remember antibiotics do not treat viral infections.

Endospores

• When environmental conditions are unfavourable some bacteria become dormant and form endospores.

• dormant cells of bacilli consist of genetic material surrounded by a thick cell wall

• very resistant to heat/cannot be easily killed when conditions improve, bacteria become active again.

Good Bacteria

Rise of the Super Bug

2.2 Endosymbiotic Theory: The Evolution of Cells

Early Ideas of Origin of Life

• Spontaneous generation was a concept proposed by Aristotle around mid 300 B.C. which is the hypothesis that living things arise from non-living material

• Widely accepted theory for a long period of time

• Believed maggots arose from decaying meat, lice formed from sweat, and frogs originating from mud

• An opposing theory was biogenesis - the concept that life originates only from preexisting life

Disproving Spontaneous Generation

• In 1668, Francesco Redi, performed an experiment where he set up two sets of jars with decaying meat, one which was covered by gauze, the other one left exposed

• Redi saw that the gauze blocked their access

• Flies arose from the open jar, so Redi concluded that maggots arose from the eggs of flies - biogenesis

Modern Day Endosymbiotic Theory

• Biologists generally believe that eukaryotes evolved from prokaryotes.

• Eukaryotes have their DNA in a nucleus and membrane bound organelles.

• The Endosymbiotic Theory states that present day eukaryotic cells evolved from the uniting of several types of primitive prokaryotic cells.

• Some organelles (mitochondria and chloroplasts) might have been originally prokaryotes that were involved in a symbiotic relationship.

Evidence for the Theory of Endosymbiosis

1. Mitochondria and Chloroplast have their own DNA

2. The DNA is circular.

3. Mitochondria and Chloroplast both reproduce by themselves without help from the nucleus.

1. Mitochondria and Chloroplast have their own ribosomes that are like the ones that bacteria have.

2.2 Kingdom Protista

CHARACTERISTICS

• MAINLY UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS WITH PLANT-LIKE AND/OR ANIMAL - LIKE CHARACTERISTICS

• ALL ARE EUKARYOTIC

• CONTAIN SIMPLE ORGANISMS SUCH AS ALGAE, PROTOZOA, AND SLIME MOULDS

ALGAE PROTISTS

• MOSTLY UNICELLULAR PRODUCERS

• FOUND IN AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS AND MOIST PLACES ON LAND

• CLASSIFIED INTO PHYLA BASED ON COLOUR AND STRUCTURE

SLIME MOULDS

• HAVE A UNIQUE LIFE CYCLE WITH FEATURES OF BOTH PROTOZOA AND FUNGI

• FOUND IN BOTH UNICELLULAR AND MULTICELLULAR FORMS

PROTOZOA

• UNICELLULAR, ANIMAL - LIKE ORGANISMS

• CLASSIFIED INTO PHYLA BASED ON HOW THEY MOVE

NUTRITION AND LOCOMOTION

• SOME PROTISTS ARE AUTOTROPHIC, SOME ARE HETEROTROPHIC, SOME ARE BOTH

• HAVE EVOLVED A VARIETY OF STRUCTURAL ADAPTATIONS FOR LOCOMOTION:

  1. FLAGELLA - LONG, WHIP-LIKE STRUCTURE

  2. CILIA - SHORT, HAIR-LIKE PROJECTIONS

  3. PSEUDOPODS - CYTOPLASMIC EXTENSIONS RESEMBLING “FEET” WHICH ALLOW ORGANISMS TO MOVE

REPRODUCTION

• UNDERGO EITHER ASEXUAL OR SEXUAL REPRODUCTION DEPENDING ON SPECIES

• 

COST/BENEFITS TO SOCIETY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

• COST: DINOFLAGELLATES CAN CAUSE “RED TIDES”, WHICH IS A SUBSTANCE THAT IS POISONOUS TO MARINE ORGANISMS.

• SOME PROTOZOA ARE PARASITES WHICH CAUSE SICKNESS IN OTHER ORGANISMS. E.G.TRYPANASOMA CAUSES AFRICAN SLEEPING SICKNESS

BENEFIT

• BENEFIT:- SOME ARE IMPORTANT MARINE PRODUCERS

• DIATOMS PRODUCE A MATERIAL WHICH IS USED AS A FILTERING AGENT, FOUND IN SCOURING POWDERS, COSMETICS, AND TOOTHPASTE.

• FORAMS PRODUCE A GREAT DEAL OF THE LIMESTONE AND CHALK DEPOSITS ON THE EARTH.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

• FOUND IN A WIDE VARIETY OF SHAPES AND MICROSCOPIC SIZES

2.3 Kingdom Fungi

Characteristics

• Simple organisms that live grow, and reproduce in the food on which they are found

• 2 Types: Yeast and Filamentous fungi,

  • eg. Mushrooms, toadstools, moulds, etc.

• They need warmth, food and moisture to grow.

• Some live on dead organic matter (Saprophytes); others on living organisms (parasites)

• Classified based on their Reproductive/spore-producing structures

Nutrition and Locomotion

• All are heterotrophic

• Fungi penetrate their food with tiny, root-like filaments known as RHIZOIDS (also used as an anchor).

• Extracellular digestion - Rhizoids secrets a digestive enzyme and then absorbs the simple molecular end products

• All fungi are stationary

Reproduction

2 Methods:

• Budding - asexual reproduction where an out-growth forms on the parent then falls off (buds) and grows into an individual (e.g. yeast)

• 

• Spores - a specialized asexual or sexual cell (depending on circumstances) that contains DNA and cytoplasm within a tough outer wall. If a spore lands on a suitable environment it will develop into a new organism.

• 

Cost/Benefits to Society and the Environment

• Cost: - As a pathogen - attack the skin or mucous membranes of the body. As they grow they cause irritation or inflammation, as well as other symptoms depending on the type of fungus e.g. breaking hair, flaking skin. (E.g. ringworm, athlete’s foot)

• some fungi cause death or hallucinations if eaten e.g. Toadstools

• 

Benefits

• Yeast are important in the brewing and baking industry

• Some can be eaten and used to make cheese.

• Penicillium is used to make medicine.

Anatomy and Physiology

• Cells are usually organized into branched, multinucleated filaments

• Yeasts are unicellular organisms

• Lichens are a combination of fungus and algae

2.4 Kingdom Animalia & Plantae

Kingdom Animalia Characteristics

• All animals share the following characteristics

  1. Eukaryotic

  2. Multicellular

  3. Reproduce sexually

  4. Heterotrophic

  5. Motile, at least for part of their life

Kingdom Animalia Features

Animals are taxonomically grouped based on three main features:

1. Number of body layers

2. Type of Body cavity

3. Body Symmetry

Feature 1: Number of body layers

The 3 main layers appear very early in embryonic development. In humans the layers are:

1. Endoderm – lungs, liver, gut lining

2. Mesoderm – muscles, blood, kidneys

3. Ectoderm – skin, nerves

Feature 2: Type of Body Cavity

The two main types of body cavities are:

• Coelomates –have a fluid filled body cavity that supports organ systems

• Acoelomates – lack a fluid filled body cavity like flatworms

Feature 3: Body Symmetry

The three main types of symmetry are:

1. Bilateral – can be cut into two mirror images through a central line.

2. Radial – body is organized around a central axis. They are symmetrical around any central cut.

3. Asymmetry – no distinctive symmetry

Animal Phyla

• Animalia phyla are spilt into two major groups based on the presence or absence of a spinal cord / vertebra

1. Non- chordates or invertebrates (95%)

2. Chordates or vertebrates (5%)

Invertebrate Phyla

• These are animals without a notochord (backbone)

• There are eight phyla of invertebrates

  1. Porifera (Sponges)

  2. Cnidarians (jellyfish)

  3. Platyhelminthes (Flatworms)

  4. Annelids (segmented worms)

  5. Nematoda (Roundworms)

  6. Mollusca (snails, clams)

  7. Echinoderms (starfish)

  8. Arthropods (insects, crabs)

Animal Classification

• Phylum Arthropoda – crustaceans, insects, spiders

• This is the largest phylum in the animal kingdom and contains the most number of species

1. Porifera: Sponges

• Asymmetrical (no symmetry)

• No coelom

• Sponges are the simplest animals, lack defined tissues and organs

• Are hermaphroditic

• Fertilized eggs become free-swimming larvae, which then attach to the ocean floor, metamorphose and become fixed in one place.

2. Cnidarians: Jellyfish and Corals

• Have radial symmetry

• No coelom

• Have tentacles with stinging cells that they use to capture food.

• Reproduce both sexually and asexually

3. Platyhelminthes: Flatworms

• Have bilateral symmetry.

• No coelom

• Can be free-living or parasites

• Free living worms are hermaphrodites, they generate a reproductive system only during breeding season.

4. Nematodes: Roundworms

• Have bilateral symmetry.

• pseudocoelomates (coelom was lost or reduced)

• Have long thin, round worm like bodies

• Simplest organisms to have a complete digestive tract

• Most are free-living, however some are parasitic

• Some reproduce sexually some asexually

5. Annelida: Segmented Worms

• Have bilateral symmetry

• Have a coelom

• Have round, segmented bodies which is beneficial for movement, can move different parts at a time, increases flexibility.

• Can reproduce sexually or asexually

6. Mollusca: Snails, Clams, Squids

• bilateral symmetry

• Have a coelom

• They are soft-bodied animals. Most cover their body with a shell for protection.

• Reproduce sexually or asexually

7. Echinodermata: Starfish

• Adults have radial symmetry

• Have a coelom

• Have spiny outer covering for protection

• Move by changing water pressure inside tubes in the arms

• Can be stationary or burrowing

• Reproduce sexually or asexually

8. Arthropoda: Insects and Spiders

• Have bilateral symmetry.

• Have a coelom

• Ecologically important part of food chains due to their abundant numbers

• Have simple respiratory, circulatory and excretory systems

• Reproduce sexually or asexually

• There are four group of arthropods: Arachnids (spiders), Centipedes & Millipedes, Crustaceans (crabs, shrimp), Insects

Plant Characteristics

• All Plants share the following characteristics

   Multicellular

   Autotrophic (photosynthesis)

   Surrounded by cell walls containing cellulose (polysaccharide)

   Store reserve food as amylose (starch)

PLANT CLASSIFICATION

• The plant kingdom has been divided into four major divisions

• Bryophytes – non-vascular

   Pteridophytes

   Gymnosperms (cone bearing plants)

   Angiosperms (flowering plants)

• By the presence or absence of

   Vascular tissue (xylem and phloem)

   True leaves and roots

   Seeds or spores

   Cones or flowers

   Fruit

• 

Nonvascular Plants

• Do not have vascular tissue for support or conduction of materials

• Require a constantly moist environment

• Plants can’t grow as tall

• Cells must be in direct contact with moisture

• Materials move by diffusion cell-to- cell

• Includes mosses (Bryophyta), liverworts (Hepatophyta), and hornworts (Antherophyta)

Vascular Plants

• Subdivided into two groups –

• Seedless vascular plants and

• Seed-bearing vascular plants

Vascular System

• Xylem tissue carries water and minerals upward from the roots

• Phloem tissue carries sugars made by photosynthesis from the leaves to where they will be stored or used

Main Parts of Vascular Plants

• Shoots

  • Found above ground

  • Have leaves attached

  • Photosynthetic part of plant

• Roots

  • Found below ground

  • Absorb water & minerals

  • Anchor the plant

Seedless Vascular Plants

• Includes club moss (Lycophyta), horsetails (Sphenophyta), whisk ferns (Psilophyta), and ferns (Pterophyta)

Seed-Producing Vascular Plants

Includes two groups –

• Gymnosperms and Angiosperms

• Gymnosperms have naked seeds in cones

• Angiosperms have flowers that produce seeds to attract pollinators and produce seeds

Gymnosperms

• are known as conifers

   Includes pine, cedar, spruce, and firn

• Contains the oldest living plant – Bristle cone pine

   Contains the tallest living plant – Sequoia or redwood

Angiosperms

• Flowering plants

• Seeds are formed when an egg or ovule is fertilized by pollen in the ovary

• Ovary is within a flower

• Flower contains the male (stamen) and/or female (ovaries) parts of the plant

• Fruits are frequently produced from these ripened ovaries (help disperse seeds)

• 

Monocot vs. Dicot

MICROSCOPE & CALCULATIONS

CALCULATING TOTAL MAGNIFICATION USED

CALCULATING FIELD DIAMETER BIOLOGICAL DRAWINGS

CALCULATING ACTUAL CELL SIZE

CALCULATING DIAGRAM SCALE

CONVERSION CHART

Biological Drawings

• Drawings and diagrams are an essential part of communication in science, and especially Life Sciences. Remember it is not an artwork or sketch! But rather it is a clear representation of what you observe which can be used to interpret what you saw.

What makes a good Biological Drawing?

DRAWINGS AND DIAGRAMS MUST

INCLUDE A LEGEND ON THE TOP RIGHT OF PAGE WHICH CONTAINS

LABEL LINES SHOULD BE DRAWN AND THEY MUST

Human Impacts on Biodiversity

• We have depleted and degraded some of the earth’s biodiversity and these threats are expected to increase.

Effects of Humans on Biodiversity

• The scientific consensus is that human activities are decreasing the earth’s biodiversity.

• Ecosystems provide humans with food, water, fuel, they regulate climate and provide humans with cultural and recreational opportunities. Sustainable use of an ecosystem means using resources in a way that meets our current needs without compromising the future.

Importance of Diversity

• Stability of ecosystem

  • Genetic diversity for species survival

  • Medicinal (pharmaceutical )

  • Food (agricultural)

  • Industrial- building homes; things we use

  • Scientific- experimental; new technology

  • Aesthetic- beauty

  • Ethical- what we should do regarding the environment.

  • Religious- religious beliefs regarding environment.

• Human activity has caused biodiversity to decrease at an alarming rate. The causes of these losses are varied and can be summarized in the term HIPPO(C):

  ● Habitat Loss

  ● Invasive Species

  ● Pollution

  ● Population Growth

  ● Overexploitation

  ● Climate Change

Habitat Loss

• Habitat loss directly affects the species that rely on the habitat being changed. Habitat loss is particularly serious in south Ontario where urbanization , agriculture and road density are greatest.

• Habitat fragmentation occurs when a large region is broken up into small patches. Example: forests interposed among cities.

Invasive Species

• Invasive species are harmful non-native species whose introduction or spread threatens the environment, the economy and society, including human health. Invasive species come from other continents, or sometimes other ecosystems with Canada.

• These species have no competition or natural predators and are able to reproduce rapidly and damage, displace or destroy native species.

  Examples: Sea Lamprey, Asian Carp, Zebra Mussels

• Many invasive species have been introduced intentionally.

• Many invasive species have been introduced unintentionally.

Pollution

• Pollution is any substance added to the environment that is harmful to organisms. Pollution is emitted in many different forms including:

  ● Solid Wastes (i.e. garbage) that cannot be recycled

  ● Air Pollution which causes global warming and acid rain

  ● Runoff/sewage that contains nutrients causes eutrophication

  ● Thermal pollution (i.e. warm water) that reduces O2 levels

Population Growth

• Human population grown adds to the impact of all other causes because more people require more Space and more resources.

Overexploitation

• Overexploitation is the harvest of species at a rate higher than can be sustained by the natural reproduction of the population which often leads to extinction.

  Examples: Aral Sea (Asia), East Coast Cod Fisheries

Climate Change

• People have added CO2 and other greenhouse gases to the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels such as coal and natural gas. These gases trap heat and accelerate the rate of global warming.

• Climate change is a major threat to the world’s biodiversity.