Chapter 3: The Atlantic Colonies

The Atlantic Colonies: A History of Cod and Settlement in Newfoundland and the Maritimes

The Atlantic Fisheries: Cod and Early Exploitation

• Cabot's Discovery (1497): John Cabot discovered Newfoundland and its abundant cod. Cod was a highly valued commodity, surpassing the price of pepper, due to its status as a mass-consumption good.

  • High Demand: There was a significant need for a cheap protein source, as beef was a luxury.

  • Religious Significance: A substantial demand came from Roman Catholics, for whom approximately $1$ in $3$ days was meatless in the $16$th century.

  • Ease of Catch and Preservation: Cod was relatively easy to catch and preserve, further contributing to its value.

• Cod Breeding Grounds: Cod thrive in the ocean expanse from Cape Cod to Cape Race, with the Grand Banks (southeast of Newfoundland) being the largest of these banks.

• Cod Habits and Fisheries: Cod spend winters offshore, spawn in the spring, move inshore between June and mid-July, and return to deeper offshore waters in the fall. This seasonal migration led to two independent fisheries:

  • Offshore (Bank) Fishery:

    • Location: Fished in the open oceans of the continental shelf.

    • Season: Fishers departed Europe in late January, arrived on the banks in late winter, and fished through May.

    • Return: They returned to Europe with their catch, sometimes managing a second trip in May or June if successful.

    • Preservation (Wet-Cure/Green-Cure):

      • Ships carried large quantities of salt.

      • As fish were caught, they were gutted, salted, and re-salted after $3$ days.

      • This method allowed cod to last a long time and be edible upon return to Europe.

      • Impact: All work was done on the boat, eliminating the need for land settlements, exploration, or regional development.

  • Inshore Fishery:

    • Location: Fished during the summer along the coast.

    • Method: Done directly from the ship or more commonly from smaller boats operating from shore.

    • Preservation Methods:

      • Green-Cure: Used if salt was readily available.

      • Dry-Cure Method: Employed when salt was scarce.

        • Process: Cod was lightly salted and laid out in the sun to dry.

        • Advantages: Used much less salt, which was attractive to nations like England where cheap salt was hard to obtain. It also tasted better (greater food value), yielded a higher price than green-cured cod, and could be stored indefinitely, lasting through long ocean voyages.

        • Impact: The dry-cure method required land for drying, which ultimately led to permanent settlement.

European Powers and the Atlantic Fisheries

• Early Exploitation: French and Portuguese:

  • These nations were the first to extensively exploit the Atlantic fisheries, possessing ample salt supplies.

  • They had large domestic demands for cod due to significant Roman Catholic populations and underdeveloped agricultural sectors.

  • Portuguese: Fished along the shores of the Avalon Peninsula until near the end of the $16$th century, when they were displaced by the English.

  • French: Operated on the east coast of the Avalon Peninsula, spreading north, south, and east. After the $1530s$, they fished along the shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence River.

  • Market: Initially, the French market was primarily France (especially Paris), but they later competed for Spanish and Portuguese markets by the end of the $16$th century.

  • Fishery Type: Primarily inshore fishers, but by the $1550s$, they also established themselves in the bank fishery.

• Rise of English Dominance:

  • Geographic Advantage: England was geographically closer to the fisheries than France and Portugal.

  • Experience: They had extensive fishing experience off Iceland, providing them with the necessary expertise and equipment for the Atlantic fishery.

  • Naval Power: By the end of the $16$th century, the British Royal Navy's presence and power were growing.

  • Icelandic Waters: Danes enforced stricter rules in Icelandic waters, pushing English fishers towards Newfoundland.

  • Domestic Demand: England couldn't meet its domestic cod demand and imported much from France.

• English Establishment in Newfoundland (By 1600):

  • Dry-Cure Necessities: Lacking salt, England relied on dry-curing, which necessitated guaranteed access to harbours, shorelines, and timber. The Avalon Peninsula was ideal for these needs.

  • Market Access: Dry-curing facilitated long voyages, enabling access to lucrative Spanish and Portuguese markets.

  • Displacement of French: The strong British presence gradually pushed the French out of the Avalon Peninsula.

  • French Concentration after 1600: The French concentrated along southern coastal Newfoundland and the northeast coast, establishing a garrison at Placentia in $1662$. They also had a presence off Nova Scotia and in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

Development of the Newfoundland Fishery (British)

• Early Arrival Incentive: British fishers were highly motivated to arrive in Newfoundland as early as possible each season.

  • Harbour Rights: The first ship to arrive in a harbour secured the best facilities, and its captain became the governing authority for that season.

  • Fishing Operations: The ship would remain moored for the season while crews of $3$ to $5$ men fished daily in smaller boats.

  • Curing: The daily catch was prepared and dry-cured on gravel beaches or on wooden, open-frame structures called