Notes on Social Inequalities and Socio-Economic Stratification

Chapter 7: Social Inequalities - Explaining Socio-Economic Inequalities

Key Questions Addressed

• Why do socio-economic inequalities exist?

• What are the causes and consequences of socio-economic inequalities?

• How are socio-economic inequalities maintained and challenged?

• What are the impacts of social inequalities on society?

Perspectives on Socio-Economic Inequalities

• Answers to the key questions range depending on the focus of various perspectives:

  • Social Structures Perspective:

  • This view suggests that social structures produce and reproduce socio-economic inequalities through mechanisms such as:

    • Class relations

    • Racism

    • Patriarchy

    • Colonialism

    • Ableism

  • Individual Attributes Perspective:

  • This viewpoint considers socio-economic inequality as a reflection of individual differences, including:

    • Talents

    • Skills

    • Abilities

    • Drives

  • This is associated with ideologies such as the “blame the victim” approach or the “culture of poverty thesis.”

Human Capital Theory (Gary Becker, 1930-2014)

• Definition: Human capital refers to the abilities, skills, knowledge, and experience possessed by an individual or group.

• Importance: Human capital must be nurtured through education and training, leading to better rewards, which can manifest as:

  • Higher productivity for society

  • Higher personal income for individuals

Critiques of Human Capital Theory

1. Rationality Assumption:

   • Presumes that all individuals act rationally and with similar motivations.

2. Fair Labour Market Assumption:

   • Assumes equal competition in an open, fair labour market, with everyone having access to resources.

3. Meritocracy Assumption:

   • Assumes a meritocratic society where advances in status are based solely on ability and talent rather than class privilege or wealth.

Functionalist Theory of Stratification (Davis & Moore, 1945)

• Davis-Moore Thesis: Asserts that social stratification has beneficial consequences for the operation of society.

• Stratification System Definition:

  • “A consequence of collective judgments by which society evaluates the worthiness of a person’s occupational position with regard to its importance or its contribution to the collectivity.” (Grabb, 2007: 100)

• Determinants of Occupational Ranking:

  1. Differential Functional Importance:

     • The significance of different occupations to the functioning of society.

  2. Differential Scarcity of Personnel:

     • Rarity of individuals qualified for certain occupational positions.

Critiques of Functionalist Theory of Stratification

1. Overemphasis on Consensus:

   • Presumes a societal consensus regarding the stratification of individuals into different strata.

2. Underemphasis on Power Dynamics:

   • Fails to account for structural barriers that hinder social mobility, such as:

     • Discrimination based on race

     • Gender inequities

     • Class divisions

3. Meritocracy Reinforcement:

   • Enforces the ideology that economic status directly reflects abilities, disregarding larger structural issues.

Pierre Bourdieu (1930-2002)

• Background: French sociologist, known for his critique of the human capital theory and contribution to conflict theory.

• Critique of Human Capital:

  • “From the very beginning, a definition of human capital, despite its humanistic connotations, does not move beyond economism and ignores, inter alia, the fact that the scholastic yield from educational action depends on the cultural capital previously invested by the family.” (Bourdieu, 1986)

Types of Capital Defined by Bourdieu

1. Economic Capital:

   • Control over economic resources, such as money and assets.

2. Social Capital:

   • Group-based resources, including social connections and networks.

3. Symbolic Capital:

   • The power to construct reality; dominant groups utilize symbols to exert influence and impose meanings on minority groups, contributing to symbolic violence, as seen in forms of racism and transphobia.

4. Cultural Capital:

   • Knowledge, skills, education, and aesthetic tastes that an individual possesses, impacting one’s social mobility and status.