5.2 MYERS PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

Reading Notes: Culture and Child Raising

Key Psychological Terms:

1. Independence vs. Compliance:

   • Independence refers to the emphasis on self-reliance and personal responsibility, which is more common in Western cultures.

   • Compliance refers to conforming to societal or familial expectations and traditions, which is often emphasized in non-Western cultures.

2. Cultural Self:

   • A cultural concept that involves the idea that individual identity is deeply connected to the family or community. For example, in many Asian and African cultures, children’s behavior is seen as a reflection of their family’s honor or shame.

3. Attachment vs. Imprinting:

   • Attachment is the emotional bond formed between a child and their caregiver, typically seen as a lifelong process that influences social and emotional development.

   • Imprinting refers to a sudden and strong attachment that occurs at a specific developmental stage, usually in certain animal species (such as ducks and geese). It’s not as flexible as human attachment.

People and Their Contributions:

1. Alwin (1990) & Remley (1988):

   • These researchers noted that the cultural values in Western societies, such as personal responsibility and individualism, have shifted over time. In the past, Western cultures emphasized obedience, respect, and sensitivity to others.

2. Morelli et al. (1992):

   • This research explored how many Asian and African cultures emphasize emotional closeness in child-rearing. Infants may co-sleep with their mothers and spend a lot of time physically close to caregivers, highlighting the importance of family self-concept.

3. Whiting & Edwards (1988):

   • Conducted studies comparing how children are raised in various cultures, showing that the proximity of caregivers (such as co-sleeping) and the value placed on family bonds differ widely across cultures.

4. Small (1997):

   • Discussed how Western and non-Western child-rearing practices can be misinterpreted. For example, Westerners may view African Gusii practices of limited verbal interaction with infants as a negative, while those in Gusii culture might question Western practices like stroller use.

Research and Findings:

1. Cultural Values in Parenting:

   • Research shows that cultures place different emphasis on values like obedience, independence, family self-concept, and respect. For example, Asian cultures tend to place higher importance on academic success and hard work, while Western cultures may emphasize individual choice and personal happiness.

2. Parenting in Different Societies:

   • Upper-class British parents traditionally used nannies and boarding schools for their children, leading to well-adjusted children in British society. However, this practice highlights the class divide and how child-rearing can differ even within the same country.

3. The Gusii Society (Small, 1997):

   • In the Gusii society, children are carried on their mother’s back, receiving lots of physical closeness but limited verbal interaction. While Western researchers may be concerned about this lack of verbal exchange, it’s a culturally accepted practice, and the children grow up thriving in their environment.

4. Japanese and Taiwanese Children’s Academic Success:

   • Studies comparing educational achievement suggest that cultural emphasis on school and hard work, particularly in Asian cultures, helps explain why children from Japan and Taiwan tend to score higher on mathematics tests compared to children in North America.

Short Summary of What I Learned:

Child-raising practices vary widely across cultures, influenced by differing values, beliefs, and social structures. In Western cultures, there's a strong emphasis on fostering independence, where children are encouraged to think for themselves and pursue their desires. In contrast, many Asian and African cultures place a greater emphasis on family connection, emotional closeness, and the collective well-being of the family, where a child’s actions can directly impact the family’s honor or shame.

Cultural differences in parenting styles don’t necessarily imply one approach is better than another. For example, practices like co-sleeping in African or Asian cultures may seem strange to Westerners, but they work well within those cultural frameworks. Additionally, some cultures place more emphasis on academic achievement, such as Japan and Taiwan, which helps explain their children’s high academic scores.

Research from various psychologists and anthropologists shows that while child-raising practices differ, children can thrive under a variety of systems. The key takeaway is that cultural context deeply shapes parenting, and there’s no universal “right way” to raise children—what works in one culture may not work in another.

Module 49: Gender Development – Reading Notes

Learning Objectives:

• Discuss gender similarities and differences in psychological traits.

• Discuss the importance of gender roles and gender typing in development.

How Are We Alike? How Do We Differ?

Gender Similarities:

• At the genetic level, there are minimal differences between men and women. 45 out of the 46 chromosomes in both genders are the same.

• Cognitive abilities (e.g., vocabulary, intelligence, memory, and happiness) do not vary significantly between genders.

Gender Differences:

• Physical Differences:

  • Women tend to be shorter, have more body fat, and have less muscle mass than men. Women also live about 5 years longer than men.

  • Women express emotions more freely and can detect faint smells.

  • Women are at a higher risk for anxiety, depression, and eating disorders. Men, on the other hand, are more likely to commit suicide, develop alcohol use disorder, and be diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder or autism spectrum disorder.

• Emotional/Behavioral Differences:

  • Aggression:

    • Men tend to engage in more physical aggression (e.g., violent crime rates, especially murder, are much higher among men). This is a consistent finding across cultures.

    • Women may display more relational aggression, such as gossiping or ostracism (John Archer, 2004, 2009).

  • Social Power:

    • In many societies, men are expected to display more dominant, independent behaviors, while women are often expected to be more nurturing and submissive (Williams & Best, 1990).

    • In leadership roles, men are typically more directive and authoritative, while women tend to be more democratic and collaborative.

  • Social Connectedness:

    • Women generally place a higher value on social relationships and connectivity, often maintaining deeper emotional bonds.

    • Men tend to engage in less emotionally intimate communication but prefer activities over conversation (Tannen, 1990).

    • Friendships: Women often have closer and more emotionally supportive relationships with friends than men.

Gender and Aggression

• Men are more likely to commit acts of physical aggression, including violent crimes such as murder, with a male-to-female arrest ratio of 9:1 in the U.S. (FBI, 2009).

• Women tend to engage more in relational aggression (spreading rumors, and social exclusion).

• Research suggests that in violent conflict situations, such as war, men express more support (e.g., Iraq War support was higher among men) (Newport et al., 2007).

Gender and Social Power

• In most societies, men are seen as more socially dominant and are often expected to prioritize achievement and power (Schwartz & Rubel-Lifschitz, 2009).

• Leadership roles are more frequently held by men. Men are also more likely to assert dominance in group settings, engage in more interruptions during conversations, and avoid emotional displays (Leaper & Ayres, 2007).

• Women, on the other hand, tend to display more nurturing leadership styles and encourage participation from subordinates (Eagly & Carli, 2007).

Gender and Social Connectedness

• Women are more likely to prioritize relationships and social connections. This can be observed in their communication patterns, such as the preference for face-to-face conversations and emotional sharing (Wright, 1989).

• Men tend to bond more through activities than verbal communication, often using conversation to communicate solutions to problems rather than to explore emotional topics (Tannen, 1990).

• Parenthood shifts gender roles. After having children, especially for mothers, there is often a return to more traditional gender roles, although these differences tend to lessen as children age (Ferriman et al., 2009).

Gender Roles and Social Expectations

Gender Roles:

• Gender roles are social expectations that guide behaviors based on one’s gender. These roles often vary across different cultures and periods.

  • Example: In the past, men were expected to initiate dates, provide for the family, and drive, while women were expected to take care of household chores and children.

• Culture’s Impact on Gender Roles:

  • Cultures like those in Scandinavia and Australia tend to have more equitable gender roles, while countries in the Middle East and North Africa have more traditional roles.

Variation Across Time:

• Gender roles have evolved significantly. For instance, women gained the right to vote only in the 20th century (New Zealand first).

• Today, women make up a significant portion of the workforce and hold about 50% of U.S. jobs (Fry & Cohn, 2010).

• However, men still dominate positions of power (e.g., in politics, and business leadership).

How Do We Learn to Be Male or Female?

Gender Identity:

• Gender Identity refers to one’s internal sense of being male or female. Social learning theory suggests that children acquire their gender identity by observing and imitating others (Bandura's social learning theory).

Social Learning Theory:

• Children are encouraged (either positively or negatively) to engage in gender-appropriate behaviors (e.g., "Big boys don’t cry" or "Good girls help their moms with dishes").

Cognitive Theory & Gender Schema:

• Children form gender schemas—mental frameworks for understanding gender roles and characteristics (Bem, 1987).

• Gender Schemes guide how children organize their world and inform their behaviors and preferences.

Gender Typing:

• Gender typing refers to the process by which children acquire traditional masculine or feminine roles. This begins early, as children start to categorize themselves and others based on gender (e.g., boys are tough, girls are nurturing).

Transgender Identity:

• Transgender individuals experience a gender identity or gender expression that differs from their birth sex. This is distinct from sexual orientation, which is about who someone is attracted to.

• Transgender people may choose to live as the opposite gender from their birth sex, sometimes using gender reassignment treatments.

Summary

Module 49 provides a comprehensive look at the psychological, social, and biological aspects of gender development. It highlights both the similarities and differences between genders, focusing on aggression, social power, and social connectedness. It also addresses the influence of gender roles and social expectations, showing how they are shaped by both biology and culture. Social learning theory and gender schemas explain how children acquire gender identities and behaviors. Gender roles, while variable, play a significant role in shaping society's expectations and individual behavior. Ultimately, gender development is a complex process influenced by a blend of biological predispositions, social conditioning, and cultural norms.

Reading Notes: Module 50 – Parents, Peers, and Early Experiences

Experience and Brain Development

Key Terms:

• Neural connections: The links between neurons in the brain that help transmit information and are built through experience.

• Neural plasticity: The brain's ability to change and adapt based on experiences, even into adulthood.

• Pruning: The process of removing unnecessary or unused neural connections during brain development.

Key Concepts:

• Early Experiences Shape the Brain: While our genetic makeup provides the basic structure of our brain, early experiences refine it by developing neural connections. For instance, language skills are most easily learned during early childhood, when the brain is forming connections.

• Enriched vs. Impoverished Environments: The study by Rosenzweig and colleagues (1962) demonstrated that rats raised in enriched environments (with toys, social interactions, etc.) developed a thicker cerebral cortex and more neural connections compared to rats raised in solitary confinement. This study showed the significant effect of environmental stimulation on brain development.
  Research:

  • Rosenzweig, Krech, and colleagues (1962): Raised rats in either impoverished or enriched environments. Rats in enriched environments had thicker cortices and more neural connections. This finding shows how environmental factors can have lasting impacts on the brain.

• Critical Periods in Brain Development: Early experiences, such as exposure to language or vision, are crucial for developing certain skills. For example, children can master a second language effortlessly before adolescence, but after this period, language acquisition becomes much harder. Similarly, individuals who do not have visual experiences early in life may struggle to regain normal vision after cataract surgery.

Summary: Early experiences, especially those that involve social interaction and cognitive stimulation, significantly impact brain development, helping to create and refine neural connections that are essential for future learning.

How Much Credit Do Parents Deserve?

Key Terms:

• Behavioral genetics: The study of how genetic and environmental factors influence behavior.

• Shared environment: The environment that is common to children raised in the same household.

Key Concepts:

• Parenting and Influence: Although parents do influence their children’s development, research shows that their role in shaping children’s overall personality is relatively small compared to genetic factors and other environmental influences.
  Research:

  • Robert Plomin and Denise Daniels (1987): In their studies of behavioral genetics, they concluded that shared environmental influences (from parents) account for less than 10% of children's differences. This suggests that siblings raised in the same home can be as different as children raised in different families.

• Key Takeaway: While parents have a significant influence on certain aspects of a child’s life (education, discipline, etc.), they are not solely responsible for a child’s personality or life outcomes. The child's genetics and broader experiences also play crucial roles.

• Parental Guilt and Blame: Society often holds parents accountable for their children's behavior, which can lead to guilt or shame if things don’t go as planned. However, it's important to remember that parental influence is just one part of the larger puzzle of child development.

Summary: Parents contribute to their children's development, but their impact is often overstated, as siblings raised in the same environment can differ significantly. Genetic factors and broader environmental influences also play key roles in shaping behavior.

Peer Influence

Key Terms:

• Peer influence: The effect that a child's peers or social group have on their behaviors, attitudes, and choices.

• Selection effect: The phenomenon where children select peers who share similar behaviors or attitudes, influencing their development.

Key Concepts:

• Peers’ Influence on Behavior: Peer groups become increasingly influential as children grow, especially during adolescence. Children may adopt behaviors like eating certain foods or using particular language styles based on the preferences of their peers.
  Research:

  • Judith Rich Harris (1998, 2000): Harris argued that peers play a more significant role than parents in shaping certain aspects of a child’s development, particularly in terms of social skills and cultural practices. For example, children often adopt accents and slang based on what is spoken in their peer groups rather than at home.

• Teens and Peer Pressure: Teenagers are particularly vulnerable to peer pressure. Studies show that teens are more likely to start smoking if their friends smoke. This highlights how peer influence works through both direct encouragement (offering cigarettes) and social modeling (seeing others smoke).
  Research:

  • J. S. Rose and R. J. Rose (1999, 2003): These studies found that peer groups significantly influence smoking behaviors among teens, either through direct suggestion or by normalizing the behavior.

• Complementary Roles of Parents and Peers: While peers are influential in socialization, parents remain critical for setting educational standards, moral values, and behaviors related to responsibility. However, parents also shape the peer environment by choosing schools and neighborhoods.

Summary: Peer influence is particularly strong during adolescence, shaping behaviors, language, and social skills. While peers are crucial for social development, parents continue to play an important role in areas like education and discipline. The relationship between parents and peers is complementary, with both groups contributing to a child’s growth in different ways.

Final Summary of What I Learned

This module highlights the significant roles of both nature and nurture in shaping human development, especially through early experiences and the influence of parents and peers. Research on brain development shows that the brain is highly malleable during early childhood, with experiences affecting neural growth and cognitive abilities. The studies of Rosenzweig and colleagues (1962) on enriched environments demonstrate that the brain grows more robustly in stimulating surroundings. While parents are essential in a child’s upbringing, their influence is less impactful than commonly believed, especially when it comes to shaping personality traits. Research by Plomin and Daniels (1987) suggests that genetic factors and broader environmental influences outweigh parental guidance in determining differences among children.

The influence of peers also becomes more pronounced as children grow older. Peer groups play a significant role in shaping behaviors, particularly during adolescence, as seen in studies by Harris (1998, 2000) and Rose (1999, 2003) on smoking. However, parents still have an important role in setting values and guiding education, even though peers shape much of a child’s social world.

Overall, understanding the interplay between genes, early experiences, and social influences is key to understanding human development.