Introducing English Syntax by Peter Fenn and Götz Schwab
Overview
A basic introduction to syntax for English as a foreign language students.
Examines English phrase and sentence structure from a descriptive viewpoint.
Develops understanding of English sentence construction.
Provides necessary theoretical apparatus for engaging with the language.
Combines theoretical and practical approaches.
Features exercises at the end of each chapter with e-resource housing answers and commentaries.
Requires no previous knowledge of linguistics.
Essential reading for students and teachers of applied linguistics and EFL/ESL.
Contents Overview
Symbols and abbreviations
Introduction
Who this book is for
What this book does
What is syntax?
The role of meaning
The connection to language teaching and training
Basic elements of grammatical structure
Structure
What are word-classes or ‘parts of speech’?
The phrase
What word-classes are there, and what are their characteristic features?
Phrase, clause and sentence
The simple sentence and its grammatical functions
Structure and function
Sentence functions explained
Verb complementation
Functions in the sentence
Structural variations of the simple sentence and functional consequences
Basic sentence operations
Questions (the interrogative)
Voice: active to passive
Negation
Commands (the imperative)
Phrases and their structure (I)
Phrases
The noun phrase
The prepositional phrase
The adjective phrase
The adverb phrase
Phrases and their structure (II)
The verb phrase
Effects of negative, interrogative and passive on the verb phrase
Auxiliary pro-forms
Two- and three-part verbs
The multiple sentence
Co-ordination
Further aspects of co-ordination
Subordination
Subordination without conjunctions
Non-finite clauses in the complex sentence (I): the infinitive
Non-finite clauses
The infinitive clause
The infinitive clause as verb complementation
The subject of an infinitive clause
Some special cases in complementation by infinitive clause
The infinitive clause as subject
Semantics: implicative meanings of catenatives with infinitives
Tense and aspect
Non-finite clauses in the complex sentence (II): the gerund
The gerund
The gerund clause
The semantics of the gerund
The gerund clause as catenative complementation
Questions of tense and aspect
The action nominal
Non-finite clauses in the complex sentence (III): the participles
The participles
The present participle and its clause
The past participle and its clause
The complex phrase (I): the complex noun phrase
The complex phrase
Postmodifiers: the relative clause
Postmodifiers: other structures as reduced relative clauses
Postmodifiers: apposition
The complex phrase (II): complex prepositional and adjective phrases
Complex prepositional and adjective phrases
The complex prepositional phrase
The complex adjective phrase
Selected clause constructions
Return to sentence-level: particular clause constructions
Extraposition
False subject constructions
Existential sentences
Cleft sentences
Nominal relative clauses
Interrogative clauses
Bibliography
Index
Symbols and Abbreviations
Square brackets indicate a subordinate clause at sentence level.
Slashes are used to show subordinate clauses inside phrases (i.e. at phrase level).
_ indicates omission of a certain element.
… indicates that the particular unit could be analysed further.
Arrows indicate a general connection between two items.
A kinked left-pointing arrow indicates the relation of a clause inside a phrase to the head of the phrase.
=> indicates a relation of presupposition between two elements.
--> indicates an implicative relation between two elements.
-/-> indicates the negation or destruction of a former implicative relation.
S: Subject
P: Predicator
Oi: Indirect object
Od: Direct object
A: Adverbial
Cs: Subject complement
Co: Object complement
ELT: English Language Teaching
EFL: English as a Foreign Language
ESL: English as a Second Language
LGSWE: Biber, D. et al. (1999). The Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English.
SAGE: Fenn, P. (2010). A Student Advanced Grammar of English.
Introduction
Intended for teachers and learners of English, native and non-native.
Aimed at those in the ELT field, general linguistics, or those wanting an overview of English phrase and sentence structure.
Not a practical grammar but gives advice on points of difficulty.
Oriented to a general international readership within an applied linguistics and ELT framework.
Core material was developed within the European context of higher education with special emphasis on language teacher training.
Aimed at the intermediate and advanced student in university training, as well as at the practicing teacher.
Can be used:
as a textbook for seminars in syntax and linguistics
as a reference work
as a self-study course
to supplement existing practical courses in English grammar
as a first introduction to fields of language dealt with more theoretically in model-based linguistic studies (such as generative grammar)
for purposes of general reading on the nature and character of English.
No previous knowledge of linguistics is necessary.
Examines English phrase and sentence structure from a descriptive point of view.
The object of study is the language itself and its central syntactic characteristics, particularly as far as they potentially affect language-learning processes.
The treatment here is applied linguistic in nature, and is not intended as a contribution (nor indeed as opposition) to any particular theoretical model of syntax.
The type of analysis used here is structural-functional, since it takes as a starting point the two parallel levels of grammar and language function, i.e. the systematic relations between form and meaning within a sentence.
It is based on concepts that are traditional in talking about language, such as word-classes and functional roles.
The ‘system’ is based in its modern form on that used by Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik in their epoch-making descriptive work A Grammar of Contemporary English (1972) and its various sequel publications, in particular A University Grammar of English (1973).
It is further developed, analysed and refined in Fenn, A Student´s Advanced Grammar of English (SAGE) (2010), but is presented here for the first time in a specific introduction to syntax.
Further reference is made in the text to another standard grammar of English based on Quirk et al. (1972), The Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (LGSWE) by Biber et al. (1999).
The theoretical approach to sentence functions is in principle semantic.
It is rooted in the conception of real-world ‘roles’ in events, such as agent, patient, recipient, etc. and regards these as reflected in functions like subject and object.
The book aims to give both practical and theoretical insight into many of the key structures which influence sentence and clause patterns in English.
There is thorough definition and explanation of standard concepts used in talking about syntax, and of the principles of their application.
Although we do not distinguish between written and oral codes in detail, we do in places take into account the fact that oral communication has to some extent its own grammatical features, which can deviate from standard written forms of the language.
Chapters 1, 2 and 3 address the basic questions of form and function in grammar, so that the reader can quickly grasp the rudiments of sentence-functional analysis and apply them to simple sentences.
Chapters 4 and 5 goes into the details of phrase structure, which we conceive of as a second level of analysis below that of the sentence.
In Chapter 6 we return to the functional level of the sentence, expanding the object of analysis from the simple to the complex sentence, and dealing with the issues of co-ordination and subordination at sentence level.
Chapters 7, 8 and 9 address themselves to non-finite clauses, and Chapters 10 and 11 look at complex phrases.
In Chapter 12, we focus on specific kinds of clause and sentence construction.
What is Syntax?
Syntax describes how words ‘hang together’: the rules and principles that underlie their combination in sentences and phrases.
Syntax, morphology, and semantics are fields of language studies.
Syntax and morphology make up grammar.
Grammar has two components: morphology (grammar of individual words) and syntax (grammar of joining words into larger units like sentences).
Example:
Amy enjoys watching sad films.
Morphology: enjoy has the third person singular ending, watch is in the gerund, films is plural.
Syntax: Amy is the subject, watching sad films is the direct object of enjoys, sad films is the direct object of watching.
Word order: declarative word order, with subject before verb.
Connection between syntax and morphology: the grammatical form of a word often depends on its relationship to other words.
The syntax of a sentence can affect the morphology of individual words.
The morphology of words often indicates syntactic relationships.
Syntax and Morphology are two sides of the same coin.
The Role of Meaning
Grammar also reflects meaning.
Syntax and morphology are partly responsible for the semantics of a sentence, i.e. its meaning content.
There is a two-way relationship. The grammar conveys the meaning, but the intended meaning also determines the grammar.
The Connection to Language Teaching and Training
Many advanced students, and even teachers of English, have only a rather hazy idea of some of the central concepts in applied syntax.
Limited cognitive awareness of key characteristics of English sentence structure also means limited ability to grasp and deal with pedagogical issues involved in learning, teaching and using the language.
This book aims to fill the gaps.
It attempts to provide a comprehensive frame of reference and a fund of systematic descriptive knowledge, supporting both student and teacher in the development of an informed and reflective professional practice.
Basic Elements of Grammatical Structure
Structure: any kind of morphological feature, syntactic construction, or grammatical categories of words.
What contrasts with structure is the idea of function (subject, object, etc.), which, as we will see later, is a sentence-dependent concept.
Word-Classes or Parts of Speech
Word-classes are a good example of how morphology, syntax and semantics interact with each other.
Morphology: Words of the same class have the same grammatical forms
Syntax: A word-class comprises members that do the same job syntactically.
Semantics also plays a large role in the character of word-classes.
Traditionally, in fact, it is meaning, rather than syntax or morphology, that is used to define word-classes, especially in the teaching of children.
The Phrase
Sentences are composed of strings of individual words in sequence.
Certain word-classes associate particularly closely with each other; certain words form groups.
Such groupings are vital building- blocks of the sentence, and are known as phrases.
Each one acts as a unit.
If a phrase is moved to another part of the sentence, it must be the whole phrase that moves, and not just a part of it.
Phrases in principle remain together and act as a group.
Each phrase has a main word that is called the head of the phrase.
The word-class of the head gives its name to the phrase.
The concept of being ‘included’ or ‘contained’ within a particular unit of sentence organisation is expressed by the linguistic term constituent, which refers to component elements of larger units.
Linguistics treats single words already as phrases.
We will now point to basic features that identify each word-class, using the three different perspectives of semantics, morphology and syntax.
Nouns
Semantics: Nouns denote entities, i.e. living things, objects, other physical phenomena, and abstractions like concepts and ideas.
Morphology: feature is number: that is, they can be singular or plural.
Syntax: Nouns can be preceded by determiners and also by adjectives.
Pronouns
Semantics: Pronouns step in as substitutes for full nouns that speakers cannot use, or do not wish to use, in particular circumstances.
Morphology: The different pronoun types all have their own individual and specific morphological features.
Syntax: Anaphoric reference with most pronouns generally involves the whole noun phrase, and not just part of it
Verbs
Semantics: Verbs typically denote actions and states, i.e. things that ‘happen’, ‘last’ and ‘go on in time’.
Morphology: In English the verb is the word-class with the most complex system of forms.
Syntax: Verbs hold sentences together grammatically.
This translates into the grammatical rule that every sentence needs a verb.
Adjectives
Semantics: Adjectives denote qualities or characteristics of entities, i.e. they are ‘describing words’ relating to nouns.
Morphology: No specific forms that all adjectives must have.
Syntax: Adjectives typically occupy two positions: as parts of noun phrases, and after a small number of verbs.
Adverbs
Semantics: Adverbs add various kinds of information to phrases and sentences.
Morphology: Adverbs can be derived from adjectives by the addition of the suffix -ly
Syntax: The main syntactic issue with adverbs is their position in the sentence, which can vary, depending on factors such as emphasis and style, and also the meaning of the adverb.
Articles and Determiners
Semantics: Two forms of identification are involved with determiners: definite and indefinite
Morphology: The articles differ in form only according to pronunciation rules (i.e. phonology)
Syntax: Determiners are parts of noun phrases.
Prepositions
Semantics: In their concrete meanings, most prepositions express a connection of space or time.
Morphology: Prepositions undergo no morphological changes at all.
Syntax: In simple sentences prepositions are always followed by nouns.
Conjunctions
Semantics: Conjunctions express a connection between two potential sentences.
Morphology: Conjunctions do not change morphologically and traditionally also belong to the particles.
Syntax: When two base sentences are joined together grammatically by a conjunction, they become clauses of the same sentence.
We can therefore say that the syntactic task of a conjunction is to link clauses in a sentence grammatically (as well as semantically, as we saw above).
Phrase, Clause, and Sentence
Phrase, clause and sentence are basic units in sentence analysis.
Sentence: The largest unit of syntactic structure and is independent.
Clause: A unit of phrases held together by one of them in the role of predicato.
Phrase: The most basic unit in sentence analysis.
The sentence, the clause and the phrase are units of syntactic structure.
Words and morphemes.
These five units of syntactic structure represent five levels of analysis related to each other in a hierarchy.
From ‘top to bottom’ and from left to right, this can be shown as follows: sentence → clause → phrase → word → morpheme.
The Simple Sentence and Its Grammatical Functions
Grammatical function means the role that a phrase has in a particular sentence.
This role:
represents the relationship of that phrase to other phrases in the sentence;
represents the relationship of that phrase to the sentence as a whole;
is therefore a sentence-dependent concept (as opposed to structure, which is not);
has both a grammatical and a semantic character.
There are seven different sentence functions:
Predicator
Subject
Direct Object
Indirect Object
Subject Complement
Object Complement
Adverbial
Predicator (P)
Syntax/Morphology: is always a verb phrase, follows the subject , contains a verb which signals the subject grammatically in terms of person and number
Semantics: The predicator pulls other members of the sentence into a coherent message. It is the core of the statement.
Subject (S)
Syntax/Morphology: always a noun phrase, precedes the predicator, must be present in every simple sentence, imposes concord on the verb in the predicator role.
Semantics: When the verb refers to an action, the subject is always the person or thing performing the action.
Direct Object (Od)
Syntax/Morphology: always a noun phrase, follows the predicator, but only when the predicator function is filled by certain kinds of verbs, verbs followed by a direct object are called transitive.
Semantics: The direct object is always the person or thing that ‘suffers’ from, or is the target of, an action or feeling
Indirect Object (Oi)
Syntax/Morphology: always a noun phrase, follows the predicator, can only occur together with a direct object, must immediately precede the direct object.
Semantics: The indirect object is the receiver (or recipient) of the direct object.
Subject Complement (Cs)
Syntax/Morphology: can be a noun phrase or an adjective phrase, follows an intransitive verb in the predicator function, Subject complements occur when intransitive verbs need something following them to complete the sentence (i.e. obligatory complementation).
Semantics: The subject complement describes a characteristic of the subject.
Object Complement (Co)
Syntax/Morphology: can be a noun phrase or an adjective phrase, occurs after certain kinds of transitive verb in the predicator function, follows the direct object.
Semantics: the object complement describes a characteristic of the direct object. Generally speaking, the verb confers the characteristic on the direct object.
Adverbial (A)
Syntax/Morphology: can be a noun phrase, prepositional phrase or an adverb phrase, can be obligatory after certain verbs, but is usually an optional addition to the sentence.
Semantics: classify adverbials according to the same meanings as those of adverbs. Typical concrete meanings are time, place and manner, answering the questions When?, Where? and How?
Verb Complementation
The structural elements and functions of a sentence following the verb are known as the verb complementation.
The individual verbs filling the predicator function present a variety of complementation requirements and possibilities which have a large influence on determining the shape of a sentence.
Transitivity
Transitive verbs are subdivided into:
Monotransitive verbs take a direct object (Od).
Ditransitive verbs take an indirect object (Oi) + a direct object (Od).
Complex transitive verbs take a direct object (Od) + an object complement (Co).
Structural Variations of the Simple Sentence and Functional Consequences
Declarative, affirmative and active sentence is the starting point.
Changing one of these settings is a ‘basic sentence operation’.
Questions (the Interrogative)
The fundamental operation here is subject–predicator inversion.
Type of question:
Yes-no question
Wh-question
Simple inversion: only auxiliary verbs are allowed to participate in subject–predicator inversion.
If the declarative sentence does not contain an auxiliary, we have to introduce an artificial one in the form of do, before inversion can take place (known as do-support).
The wh-word (more exactly labelled an interrogative pronoun, interrogative adverb or interrogative determiner, as the case may be) focuses on a particular item of information in the equivalent declarative sentence.
A wh-word cannot refer to an indirect object
Voice: Active to Passive
Voice means ‘way or manner of speaking’
Refers to the distinction between active and passive verb forms.
The passive voice of a verb is formed by combining its past participle with the auxiliary be.
Passive verbs refer to actions, and must therefore be in the progressive form when necessary:
Only be + past participle counts as a passive
Monotransitive passivisation
apart from the change in the verb form the active direct object becomes the passive subject the active subject becomes – in the passive sentence – part of a prepositional phrase with by, functioning as an adverbial the whole operation is accompanied by the necessary changes in word order
Ditransitive passivisation active sentences with ditransitive verbs (i.e. with the complementation indirect object + direct object) can be put into the passive in two possible ways