Form and Space

Unity of Opposites

  • Space and Mass: Space constantly encompasses our being and forms the backdrop for all perception (see Page 2). Through space we move, see forms, hear sounds, feel breezes, and smell fragrances. Space is formless vapor until captured and organized by the elements of mass, which gives rise to architecture. This is the core idea of the Unity of Opposites: form (mass) and space (void) are inseparably linked.
  • Unity of Opposites defined: Figures (positive elements) and ground (negative background) are organized into two opposing groups to understand a visual field, but they constitute one reality. Architecture depends on the interaction between mass and space, not on one without the other (Pages 4–6).
  • Mass–Space Boundary: Architectural form occurs at the juncture between solid mass and spatial void. Reading designs requires attention to both the form of the mass containing space and the form of the spatial volume itself (Page 7).

Figure–Ground Relationship

  • Visual field is typically heterogeneous; we interpret it by dividing elements into positive figures and negative background (Page 4).
  • Perception depends on the interaction of positive and negative elements; a figure’s recognition depends on distinct profile, contrast with background, and isolation from context (Page 5).
  • Figures cannot exist without a contrasting background; together, figures and background form a unity of opposites—the foundational idea for understanding architectural space (Pages 6, 7).

Reading Figures and Spaces in Architecture (Urban to Room Scale)

  • The figure–ground relationship can invert across a map or plan: in Rome, portions show buildings as positive figures that define streets, while other parts reveal urban squares and major spaces as positive elements against surrounding mass (Page 9–10).
  • The symbiotic relationship of mass and space exists at several scales. At each level, focus on both the form of the building and its impact on surrounding space (Page 10).
  • Urban-scale considerations for building roles:
    • Continue the existing fabric of a place
    • Form a backdrop for other buildings
    • Define a positive urban space
    • Stand as a significant object in space (Page 11).
  • Building-site scale: various strategies relate a building’s form to surrounding space, including:
    • Building as an object in space
    • Buildings defining space
    • Examples: Piazza of San Marco (Venice); Boston City Hall (1960, Kallmann, McKinnell & Knowles) (Page 12).
  • Reading diagrams: the figures (positive forms) include the mass of the building and the space it defines; the diagrams show mass and space interacting to form a unified architectural reality (Page 7).

Space–Defining Elements and Planes

Horizontal Elements Defining Space

  • Base Plane: the fundamental ground plane that defines the starting field.

  • Elevated Base Plane: raises a portion of the base plane to create a distinct domain within a larger spatial context; edge articulation can separate the field from its surroundings (Page 30).

  • Depressed Base Plane: lowers a portion of the base plane to isolate a field of space; this depression creates a boundary with visible edges and can form walls of the space (Pages 35–37).

  • Overhead Plane: defines a field of space between itself and the ground plane; its shape, size, and height determine the formal qualities of the space; can define a discrete volume by itself (Page 42).

  • Perceptual cues: a perceptible change in color, tone, or texture strengthens edge definition of horizontal planes; a continuous flow of space across a base plane is described (Page 27).

  • Street examples and parterres show how horizontal planes articulate movement, rest, and functional zones (Page 28).

Vertical Elements Defining Space

  • Vertical Linear Elements: columns or posts establish a ground point and become visible in space; alone they are non-directional unless connected to a path (Page 49).
  • When within a defined volume, a column generates a spatial field and interacts with the enclosure; can buttress a plane, punctuate a corner, or stand free to define zones of space (Pages 50–51).
  • Centered column: asserts itself as the space’s center, creating equivalent zones around it; offset columns create hierarchical zones differentiated by size, form, and location (Page 51).
  • Edges and corners: linear elements help mark space boundaries; a repetitive column sequence strengthens volume definition (Page 54).
  • Every volume requires edge and corner definition to maintain visual and spatial continuity with surrounding context (Page 52).

Openings in Space–Defining Elements

  • Openings are essential for spatial continuity: doors enable movement; windows light the space, reveal views, and enable ventilation. However, openings also weaken enclosure if excessive in size or number (Page 57).
  • Openings are categorized by location and relation to planes:
    • Within Planes: openings wholly within a wall or ceiling plane; shapes include Centered, Off-Center, Grouped, Deep-set, Skylight (Page 58).
    • At Corners: openings located along edges or at corners produce diagonal orientation and can brighten dark corners; large openings weaken corner definition if they turn the corner (Page 66–67).
    • Between Planes: openings extend vertically between floor and ceiling or horizontally between walls; can grow to occupy an entire wall; include Vertical, Horizontal, and Skylight concepts (Page 60).
  • Openings within Planes (detailed): a centered opening feels stable; off-center openings introduce tension; grouping creates movement along a plane; as openings grow, they can become a transparent plane bounded by a heavy frame (Page 61–65).
  • Openings at corners: corner openings erode plane edges and articulate adjacent planes; the larger the opening, the weaker the corner definition; corner openings can imply space beyond the corner (Page 66–67).
  • Openings between planes: vertical openings separate wall planes; turning the corner can interlock spaces and emphasize individual planes; horizontal openings can segment the wall into layers and, if deep, become framed elements (Page 71–74).
  • Skylights and window-walls: linear skylights wash light along edges; window-walls provide expansive daylight and views; direct sun requires shading devices; combining window-walls with skylights creates sun rooms or greenhouse effects (Pages 75–78).

Lighting, View, and Perception

  • Light is the sun’s energy; its quality varies with time, weather, and season; daylight is transformed by clouds, haze, and precipitation, carrying sky colors and weather into architectural surfaces (Page 86).
  • Direct sunlight vs diffuse daylight:
    • Direct sunlight yields high illumination, sharp shadows, and crisp articulation of space; glare and heat gain must be managed with shading or vegetation (Page 90).
    • Diffuse daylight from the sky vault softens light, balances levels, and reduces harsh contrasts (Page 91).
  • The location and orientation of openings crucially affect daylight delivery, glare, and privacy; two directions of daylight are often recommended to minimize glare (Page 92).
  • Light interaction with surfaces: openings illuminate adjacent surfaces, which in turn reflect light to other surfaces; the shape, color, and texture of surfaces affect reflectivity and ambient light (Page 94).

Degree of Enclosure and View

  • Degree of Enclosure: defined by the enclosing planes and openings; affects perception of form and orientation; within a space, only the wall surface is visible; wall thickness is revealed mainly at openings (Page 82).
  • Openings wholly within enclosing planes do not weaken the edge definition; openings along edges can weaken corner boundaries but promote visual continuity with adjacent spaces (Page 83–84).
  • Openings between enclosing planes visually isolate planes and emphasize their individuality; more openings can diffuse the space and reduce enclosure, making the volume rely more on the enclosing planes than the space itself (Page 85).
  • View and focus: some spaces have internal focus (e.g., fireplace); others emphasize outward views or connections to adjacent spaces (Page 95).
  • Views through openings: window and skylight openings determine outlooks and privacy; sequence windows to fragment scenes or open up broad vistas; larger openings can dominate or serve as backdrops for activity (Page 97).
  • Interior openings enable views between spaces and can orient attention toward specific views or treetops/sky (Page 98).

Qualities of Architectural Space and Enclosure

  • Qualities of architectural space are richer than diagrams suggest; perception of space depends on form, proportion, scale, texture, light, sound, and enclosure, influenced by cultural context and personal experience (Page 79).
  • Properties of enclosure to consider: Shape, Surface, Edges, Dimensions, Configuration, Openings; Qualities of space to consider: Form, Color, Texture, Pattern, Sound, Proportion, Scale, Definition, Degree of Enclosure, View, Light (Page 80).
  • The concluding discussion emphasizes that size, shape, and location of openings influence the qualities of a room, including degree of enclosure, focus, illumination, and light distribution (Pages 81–82).

Case Examples and Notable Works (Illustrating Unity of Opposites and Space-Defining Principles)

  • Urban and architectural studies illustrate figure–ground inversions and space–defining strategies across scales:
    • Rome map examples show positive and negative figures shifting with perception (Pages 9–10).
    • Piazza of San Marco, Venice (Building as space-defining element) and Boston City Hall (1960) as a building defined by its space (Page 12).
    • Fatehpur Sikri, Palace Complex of Akbar the Great, Mogul Emperor of India, 1569–74 (Page 31).
    • Pavilion of Supreme Harmony (Taihe Dian) in the Forbidden City, Beijing, 1627 (Page 33).
    • Acropolis, Athens, 5th century B.C. (Page 33).
    • Izumo Shrine, Shimane Prefecture, Japan, A.D. 717 (last rebuilt in 1744) (Page 33).
    • Temple Mountain at Bakong Temple, A.D. 881, Hariharalaya, Cambodia (Page 33).
    • Theatre in Seinäjoki, Finland, 1968–69, Alvar Aalto (Page 19).
    • Rockefeller Center, New York City, 1930, Wallace K. Harrison & Max Abramovitz (Page 39).
    • Glass House, New Canaan, Connecticut, 1949, Philip Johnson (Page 29).
    • Farnsworth House, Plano, Illinois, 1950, Mies van der Rohe (Page 34).
    • Bandung Institute of Technology, Bandung, Indonesia, 1920, Henri Maclaine Pont (Page 45).
    • Villa Mairea, Noormarkku, Finland, 1938–39, Alvar Aalto (Page 77).
    • Parterre de Broderie, Palace of Versailles, France, 17th century; Katsura Imperial Villa, Kyoto, Japan, 17th century (Page 29).
    • Epidauros Theater, Greece, c. 350 B.C. (Page 39).

Summary of Key Concepts

  • The core thesis: Unity of Opposites—architectural space and mass are inseparable; form emerges where mass and space interact.
  • Figure–Ground: Positive elements (figures) and their contrasting background define perception; neither exists independently of the other; both together define architecture.
  • Multi-scale reading: The same principles apply from urban fabric to building sites to individual rooms.
  • Space-defining elements: Horizontal (base planes, elevated and depressed planes, overhead planes) and vertical (columns, planes) elements define space and its boundaries.
  • Openings: Doors, windows, skylights, and their locations and sizes govern movement patterns, daylight distribution, views, and the degree of enclosure.
  • Light and view: Sunlight and daylight quality shape perception, mood, and the articulation of space; openings should be oriented and proportioned to balance direct and diffuse light while controlling glare and privacy.
  • Degrees of enclosure and edge definition: The balance between solid boundaries and openings determines the legibility and experiential quality of a space.
  • Theoretical and practical implications: The diagrams’ language (figures, grounds, planes, openings) informs design decisions at every scale, guiding how a building touches its site and its surroundings, how it is read, and how it performs.

Connections to Practice and Real-World Relevance

  • Design reading and analysis: Architects should read plans for both mass and space, recognizing how the mass defines space and how the space defines mass across scales.
  • Urban design: Buildings can continue the fabric, become backdrops, or define positive spaces; this flexibility informs neighborhood planning and the character of a city.
  • Environmental and experiential considerations: Opening placement and size affect daylight, shading, glare, and ventilation; thoughtful openings improve comfort and energy performance.
  • Material and structural awareness: Roof planes and ceiling planes reflect or integrate with structural systems, influencing form and enclosure.

Practical Implications and Takeaways

  • Always consider both the form of the mass and the space it contains; read architecture as a dialogue between positive and negative spaces.
  • Use openings strategically to shape movement, light, views, and enclosure; avoid excessive openings that degrade the sense of enclosure.
  • Employ base planes, elevated planes, depressed planes, and overhead planes as tools to sculpt space and organize programmatic zones.
  • Treat vertical elements as more than supports; they serve to define edges, corners, and the interior geometry of a space.
  • Understand that the perception of space changes with scale; designs should be evaluated at urban, building-site, building, and room scales to ensure coherence.