NAPOLEON & THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA
BACKGROUND & CONTEXT
The French Revolution gradually became more radical, particularly under the leadership of Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety.
Many of the original goals of the Revolution were abandoned amidst increasing radicalism.
Robespierre's government was eventually overthrown, leading to the establishment of the Directory, which was composed of five men. This new government was more conservative but lacked strength and decisiveness.
France was left in a state of disorder and instability, creating a pressing need for a strong ruler who could restore order.
NAPOLEON’S RISE TO PROMINENCE
Born on the island of Corsica; Corsica has a historical affiliation with Italy but was under French occupation at the time.
Attended a military school in Paris.
Initially led a Corsican resistance against French occupation but later pledged allegiance to France.
In 1795, Napoleon defended the Directory against counter-revolutionary forces, earning him the title of "Savior of the Republic."
He was appointed commander of the Army of the Interior and became a key military advisor to the Directory.
In 1798, he suffered a significant defeat at the Battle of the Nile against British Admiral Horatio Nelson; however, during this campaign, he discovered the Rosetta Stone, which would later come to symbolize the link between ancient and modern civilizations (taken by Britain in 1801).
SEIZING & CONSOLIDATING POWER
1799 (November): A coup d'état occurred on 19 Brumaire.
December: A new constitution was established, and Napoleon was named "First Consul." He was one of three consuls but held the highest rank.
The term "Consul" historically refers to leaders in the Roman Republic.
1800: A plebiscite was held where citizens (defined as adult males) approved the new constitution.
A plebiscite is a form of voting that allows citizens to express their opinion directly.
Napoleon established a concordat with the Papacy, restoring relations with the Catholic Church, which had been largely abolished during the Revolution.
1802: He was declared "Consul for Life," marking a significant consolidation of power.
1804: Napoleon famously crowned himself emperor, demonstrating his ultimate authority and departure from previous republican ideals.
The method of this crowning emphasized his fantastical ambition and self-assertion in a transformative era.
THE NAPOLEONIC CODE (CIVIL CODE)
The Napoleonic Code was founded on key principles of the French Revolution:
Laws should derive from reason and common sense rather than historical tradition.
All men are to be treated equally and are guaranteed rights under the law, including the right to property and the abolition of feudal systems, which freed peasants from serfdom.
Objective: To simplify laws and consolidate them into a singular, coherent legal document.
The Napoleonic Code was not only influential in France but was also spread to regions conquered by the French, affecting legal systems across Europe.
THE NAPOLEONIC WARS
OVERVIEW
By 1812, Napoleon had conquered a vast majority of Europe. Significant territories included:
Areas controlled by the French Empire and its allies.
Strikingly significant locations such as St. Petersburg, Moscow, and major battles referenced, including Waterloo and Austerlitz.
MAJOR BATTLES
BATTLE OF TRAFALGAR (1805):
Napoleon famously asserted, “If we are masters of the Channel for six hours, we are masters of the world.”
He was decisively defeated by the British navy led by Lord Nelson, which confirmed Britain's dominant status as a maritime power.
AUSTERLITZ (1805):
Marked as a major victory where Napoleon's Grande Armée faced the Third Coalition, comprising the UK, Austria, Russia, Sweden, Naples, and Sicily.
Following this victory, he became King of Italy.
Led to the Treaty of Tilsit (1807) between Russia and France, viewed by Napoleon as one of his proudest moments.
This battle contributed to the subsequent collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806.
Napoleon famously stated that soldiers could proudly say, "I was at the Battle of Austerlitz," signifying bravery.
THE CONTINENTAL SYSTEM (1807)
The Berlin Decrees were established, forbidding Napoleon's allies from importing British goods, with the overarching goal of economically isolating Britain.
Challenges included Britain's possession of the world's strongest navy, leading to rampant smuggling and its ultimate failure.
INVASION OF RUSSIA (1812)
Russia withdrew from the Continental System, prompting Napoleon to lead an invasion with 600,000 soldiers into Russia.
The Russian strategy utilized the SCORCHED-EARTH POLICY, retreating while destroying resources leading to immense difficulties for invading forces.
Moscow was burned by Tsar Alexander I rather than being surrendered, leading to major logistical failures for Napoleon.
Ultimately, only 100,000 soldiers returned from this catastrophic campaign.
DOWNFALL
Following the devastation in Russia, the Third Coalition seized the opportunity to mobilize against Napoleon, initiating the Battle of the Nations (1814).
Allied armies marched into Paris; Napoleon subsequently abdicated and was exiled to Elba.
He returned briefly, attempting to reclaim control during the Hundred Days (1815) but was ultimately defeated at Waterloo by British and Prussian forces, leading to his final exile to St. Helena.
POETIC REFLECTIONS ON NAPOLEON
Ode to Napoleon Bonaparte by Lord Byron (1814):
The poem reflects Byron's sentiment regarding Napoleon's fall from grace, revealing the disillusionment with the notion of power.
Captures themes of ambition, tyranny, and the fleeting nature of glory.
Contains lines that evoke a sense of somber reflection on past aspirations and present failures in leadership.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
How does Lord Byron characterize Napoleon in his poem?
What is the overall tone of the poem?
What is surprising about Byron's viewpoint, considering his nationality?
HERO OR TYRANT? COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
HERO:
Improved efficiency in tax collection.
Established lycées as educational institutions.
Enacted the Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code) safeguarding property rights.
Promoted Enlightenment ideals, including the abolition of feudalism, and facilitated improved relationships with the church.
TYRANT:
Did not advance women's rights.
Restricted freedom of the press.
Operated with a secret police force.
Acted as an autocrat who created a facade of popular governance.
Engaged in nepotism by placing family members on thrones of deposed rulers.
RECAP: NAPOLEON QUOTE APPLICATION
Each quote presents policies that reflect Napoleon’s ideology:
“It strengthens the bonds between nations to have the same civil laws …”
“Four hostile newspapers are more to be feared than a thousand bayonets.”
“Nothing renders a nation so despicable as religious despotism.”
“A leader is a dealer in hope.”
“Men who change the world achieve success by stirring the masses.”
THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA
Napoleon's rule disrupted the BALANCE OF POWER in Europe, prompting a response from other European powers to reestablish order, stability, and balance in international relations.
CONSERVATIVE GOALS
Klemens von Metternich, a pivotal figure, articulated three primary goals at the Congress of Vienna:
Prevent France from initiating conflict with another nation.
Ensure a balance of power to stop any one country from threatening others.
Restore legitimacy to the monarchs who had been ousted by Napoleon.
Conservatism: Prioritizes order and stability, emphasizing tradition. Tied to society's upper classes and the church.
KEY NEGOTIATORS AT THE CONGRESS
Prince Klemens von Metternich (Austria): Served as the Host.
Castlereagh (Britain): British Foreign Minister.
Tsar Alexander I (Russia): Russian leader.
King Frederick William III (Prussia): Leader of Prussia.
Talleyrand (France): French Foreign Minister.
TERRITORIAL ADJUSTMENTS
France was stripped of all territories conquered under Napoleon's reign.
Russia received most of the Duchy of Warsaw (modern Poland).
Prussia acquired half of Saxony, additional Polish territories, and parts of other German territories, increasing its strength in Europe.
A Germanic Confederation of over 30 states was formed from the previous 300 principalities, signaling a step toward German unification.
Austria gained territory at the expense of Italy, and the neutrality of Switzerland was assured.
A CONCERT OF EUROPE
The founding bodies comprise the Quadruple Alliance, which represented a profoundly conservative approach aimed at reverting Europe to its pre-1789 state.
This collective sought to maintain a balance of power among the Great Powers, with the ambition of preventing future wars, marking a unique effort historically.
Themes emerging from this period included the rise of nationalism, conflicts over the "EASTERN QUESTION" regarding the decline of the Ottoman Empire, and increased nationalism leading toward unification movements in Germany and Italy, ultimately challenging the effectiveness of the Concert.