World Civ Midterm

SEDENTISM AND AGRICULTURE

Why do humans settle down? (sedentism): people lived as hunter-gathers where they moved from place to place; people began settling down before agriculture was fully developed

• The Steppe: a large grassland environment that stretches from eastern Europe to China

• The Desert (Taklamakan Desert): hot and cold deserts and were created because of mountain ranges

• The Ocean: provided food, transportation, opportunities for trade, and connections between different communities; southwest and northeast monsoon

River Civilizations: people began to settle near rivers because it provided reliable sources of water and supported agriculture

Christian Thomsen indroduced the Three Age System

1. Stone Age

• Paleolithic (“old stone”): early hunter-gatherer societies

• Neolithic (“new stone”) : farming, permanent settlements, and new types of stone tools

2. Bronze Age: the use of bronze tools and weapons

3. Iron Age: the use of iron tools and weapons (everyday tools)

Oldest known human site cave: Jebel Irhoud, Morocco around 315,000 years ago

• Hunter-gathers obtained food from their surrounding environment rather than producing their food through agriculture

• - they depended on wild plants and animals, fishing, and seasonal resources

Sedentism: the practice of living in one place for an extended period rather than constantly moving; came before agriculture

The Huleh Valley, Israel: early sedentary community around 12,000 BC that is associated with Natufian culture

Ain Mallaha: evidence for humans living in settle community and demonstrates that humans were creating relatively permanent settlements before agriculture was fully established

Natufian Culture: they represent one of the early cultures associated with sedentary communities in the Near East (around 12,000-11,000 BC)

Abu Hureyra (approximately 11,500-10,500 BC): provides evidence for the transition toward settled life

• Younger Dryas Period: period of significant climatic change around 10,500-9,800 BC

• Abu Hureyra II: demonstrates changes occuring around the transition toward agriculture

Domestication: the purposeful manipulation of plants and animals by humans in a way that causes genetic and physcial changes

URBANIZATION AND THE FIRST CITIES

5 major characteristics of the first city of Uruk

1. A governing institution

2. Public buildings

3. Specilization of labor

4. Long-distance trade

5. Leadership and administration

Jericho (apx —> 8500-7200 BC)

• located in the Jordan River Valley

• provided access to water and supported agriculture

• provides evidence that humans were creating large, permanent settlements thousands of years before the first true cities (i.e. stone wall, large tower, permanent buildings)

Tower at Jericho

• important because it demonstrates that the inhabitants were capable of organizing substantial amounts of labor

Ain Ghazal

• approximately 6500-5500 BC

• large Neolithic settlement

Mesopotamia —> “land between the rivers”

• Tigris and Euphrates Rivers provided water, fertile land, transportation, fishing, and resources for settlements

The Mudhif: demonstrates how people could use locally available natural materials to construct large buildings

Irrigation (approximately 6500 BC): the artificial movement of water to agricultural fields

Eridu

• approximately 6500 BC

• represents an early settlement associated with the development of Mesopotamian urban civilization

Temple at Eridu

• evidence that a community was organizing itself around a religious institution

• evidence of social organization and institutional authority

Religion cycle

Specialization of Labor

1. Artists: created sculptures and other cultural items

2. Weavers: produced textiles and other woven materials

3. Potters: produced ceramic containers and other objects

Uruk Trade Networks

• trade allowed then to acquire stone, metals, timber, other raw materials, and luxury goods

Public Buildings in Uruk

• White Temple —> Anu

• Eanna Temple —> Inanna

Beveled-Rim Bowl: evidence for the organization of the Uruk economy, as well as suggests large-scale production and distribution

The Uruk Vase: connected to the religious and social world of Uruk

URUK AND THE INVENTION OF WRITING

Seals: marked property, identified merchants or officials, helped secure containers and good, and functioned similarly to signatures today

• Important step toward formal record keeping

Pictographs: pictures used to represent objects or ideas

• worked well for concrete objects but struggled to express abstract ideas and complex language

Writing: representation of language through a system of symbols

Tokens (8000 BC): counted livestock, tracked agricultural products, and recorded trade goods

Bullae (3700 BC): clay envelopes used to hold tokens (protected accounting tokens, created secure records, often sealed to prevent tampering)

Numerical Tablets (3400 BC): allowed larger amounts of information to be placed on

Proto-Cuneiform (3100 BC): combined numbers with pictures, recorded goods, animals, and temple resources, and used mostly for administration

Rebus Principle: when a symbol is used for its sound rather than its literal meaning

Cuneiform: writing became more efficient and capable of expressing complex ideas because pictures became stylized

Logo-Syllabic Writing

1. Logograms: symbols that represent complete words

2. Syllabograms: symbols that represent syllables

Rosetta Stone: enabled scholars to decipher Egyptian hieroglyphics, contained the same message in multiple scripts, and demonstrated the power of comparative translation

EARLY DYNASTIC AND SARGONID MESOPOTAMIA

Early Dynastic Mesopotamia

• approximately 2900-2350 BC

• consisted of multiple independent city-states

The Royal Tombs of Ur

• provided evidence about the wealth of Mesopotamian rulers, social hierarchy, craftsmanship, religious beliefs, burial practices, etc.

Puabi’s Tomb (PG 800)

• tomb contained extremely elaborate burial goods, such as luxary materials and elaborate decorative objects

Long Distance Trade

• Why was it necessary? —> Mesopotamia had fertile agricultural land, but it lacked many important natural resources such as, timber, certain metals, precious stones, and other luxury materials

Conflict Between Lagash and Umma

• Lagash and Umma fought over control of the territory between them, which demonstrated that city-states competed with one another for land and resources

Political Unification (2350 BC)

• A new king named Lugalzaggesi came to power in Umma

• Lugalzaggesi attacked and captured Uruk

• He then defeated and captured Lagash

• He subsequently conquered the rest of southern Mesopotamia

The Rise of Sargon (around 2300 BC)

• created a much larger political state than the individual Sumerian city-states

• his rise represents another major step toward political unification

Enheduanna

• prominent religious and political figure associated with the Akkadian Empire

• daughter of Sargon

• important in the history of religion, literature, political power, and women’s roles in ancient Mesopotamia

Naram-Sin

• one of the most powerful rulers of the Akkadian dynasty

• continued expansion of the Akkadian state

The Great Revolt

• the larger an empire becomes, the more difficult it can be to maintain political control

EGYPT FROM THE PREDYNASTIC PERIOD TO THE PYRAMIDS

The Nile River: provided fresh water, made farming possible, served as a transportation route, and connected settlements throughout Egypt

• The Nile Floods: replenished nutrients in the soil, made farming productive, and supported population growth; however, too much flooding destroyed crops and too little flooding led to famine

The Nilometer: a structure used to measure the Nile’s water level

• Purpose: predict flooding, estimate crop yields, and help determine taxes

Kemet vs. Deshret

Kemet (“Black Land”): fertile areas along the Nile and rich dark soil created by flooding

Deshret (“Red Land”): dry desert surrounding Egypt and was dangerous and unsuitable for farming

Cataracts of the Nile

• 1st Cataract: a section of river filled with rocks and rapids that marked an important southern boundary of Egypt

Manetho (300 BC)

• classified Egyptian history into 33 dynasties

• presented these dynasties as ruling successively, but we know some of them ruled simultaneously

The Naqada Period/Predynastic (4000-3000 BC)

• Evidence: decorated pottery, seals, stone carvings, early symbols

• Characteristics: growing villages, increased trade, specialized crafts, and social hierarchy

Ba and Ka

• Ba: mobile personality or spirit

• Ka: life force or spiritual double

Hieroglyphs

• Purposes: record keeping, religious texts, government administration, and commemoration of rulers

• Used for pictures, symbols, and phonetic signs

The Great Pyramid of Giza

• built around 2500 BC

• largest Egyptian pyramid

• Purpose: tomb of Pharaoh Khufu and symbol of royal power

RELIGION AND SOCIETY IN EARLY MESOPOTAMIA

The Rise of Sargon (2300 BC)

• Sargon of Akkad emerged around 2300 BC and conquered much of Mesopotamia

• united numerous city-states under one government

• created a much larger political unit than earlier kingdoms

• associated with creating the Akkadian Empire and one of the earliest empires in world history

The Akkadian Empire

• marked a major transition from independent city-states to large territorial states

Naram-Sin

• one of the most famous Akkadian rulers

• expanded Akkadian territorym strengthened imperial government, and emphasized royal authority

The Rise of Hammurabi (1759-1750 BC)

• King of Babylon, military conqueror, state builder, lawgiver

The Code of Hammurabi

• Purpose: established legal standards, punishments, property rights, family laws, commercial regulations, and social expectations

EGYPT: THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NEW KINGDOM

• 1550-1425 BC

First Intermediate Period — 2160-2055 BC

• Egypt became politcally divided

• Multiple dynasties ruled different parts of Egypt

• Represented a decline in the centralized authority that had characterized the Old Kingdom

Middle Kingdom — 2055-1650 BC

• a new dynasty conquered and reunified Egypt

• Egyptian rulers attempted to restore the centralized government of the Old Kingdom

• government became more powerful and centralized

Second Intermediate Period — 1650-1550 BC

• Hyksos migration and Nubian independence began to develop

• The Hyksos gained control over parts of Egypt, while Nubia became independent from Egyptian control

The New Kingdom (1550 BC)

Seqenenre Tao

• Died around 1555 BC

• was an Egyptian ruler involved in the conflict against the Hyksos

• His reign occured immediately before the final reunification of Egypt

Kamose

• ruled approximately 1555-1550 BC

• continued to fight against against the Hyksos

• helped prepare the way for the final expulsion of the Hyksos

Ahmose

• ruled approximately 1550-1525 BC

• one of the most important figures in the establishment of the New Kingdom

• his reign marks the beginning of the 18th Dynasty

Amun-Ra

• Amun was an important Theban god

• Amun became associated with Ra, the Egyptian sun god

• combined deity, Amun-Ra, became important during the New Kingdom

Ahmose-Nefertari

• was an important royal woman of the early 18th Dynasty and was connected to the royal family that established the New Kingdom

• her position demonstrates that royal women could hold significant religious and political status

Hatshepsut’s Regency (1479-1473 BC)

• Regent: someone who governs on behalf of another person who is unable to rule independently, often because that person is too young

• presented herself as a king/pharaoh, despite being a woman

Thutmose III

• ruled approximately 1458-1425 BC

• followed Hatshepsut

• became one of Egypt’s major military rulers

THE LATE BRONZE AGE - PART 1

Amenhotep III (ruled from 1390-1352 BC)

Akhenaten (reign from 1352-1336 BC)

• previously called Amenhotep IV

• increased the importance of the Aten —> represented as a solar disk

Nefertiti

• queen and wife of Akhenaten

• the royal familt became central to the new religious imagery

The Amarna Letters

• collection of diplomatic letters written during the Amarna period

• provided direct evidence for how rulers communicated with one another during the Late Bronze Age

Vassal Kings

• a vassal is a ruler or political authority who is subordinate to a more powerful king or empire

The Diplomatic Gift Economy: helped rulers maintain alliances and demonstate mutual respect

The Uluburun Shipwreck (1300 BC)

• one of the richest and most important archaelogical discoveries from the Bronze Age

• artifacts recovered included metals, luxury goods, jewelry, ceramics, and elite items

Valley of Kings: burial site for many Egyptian rulers

Collapse around 1200 BC: many major powers suffered city destruction, population displacement, political collapse, and loss of trade networks

Cypriot White Slip Ware

• important marker of Late Bronze Age trade

• shows active trade networks, cultural exchange, and economic integration

The Sea Peoples

CHINA FROM THE NEOLITHIC TO THE QIN DYNASTY (8000-210 BC)

Chinese Neolithic Period (8000-2000 BC)

• developed around the Yellow River (northern China) and the Yangzi River (southern China)

• transition from hunting and gathering to farming, development of permanent settlements, and growth of population and social organization

Diaotonghuan Cave

• one of the arliest archaeological sites showing rice cultivation

• evidence of early human settlement in southern China

• demonstrates long historu of Chinese agriculture

Silk Production

• one of China’s greatest inventions

• became an important trade good

• increased economic wealth

Xia Dynasty (approximately 1900-1600 BC)

• may represent China’s earliest state-level society

Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 BC)

• first chinese dynasty supported by extensive archaelogical evidence

• achievements included bronze technology, writing system, organized government, and urban development

Oracle Bones (1200 BC)

1. Question inscribed on bone

2. Bone heated until it cracked

3. Priests interpreted cracks

4. Outcome recorded

• Earliest know chinese writing

Zhou Dynasty (1027-771 BC)

• defeated the Shang Dynasty

• claimed the right to rule through Mandate of Heaven

- heaven grants authority to rulers, unjust rulers lose this mandate, and rebellion can be justified if rulers fail

The Warring States Period (475-221 BC)

• Important States: Qin, Chu, Qi, Wei, Han, Zhao, and Yan

• Effects: constant warfare, military innovation, stronger governments, and growth of philosophical traditions

Qin Dynasty (221-210 BC)

• Qin Shi Huang became China’s first emperor

• unified competing states, standardized writing, currency, weights and measures, built roads and infrastructure, and expanded defensive walls that later contributed to the Great Wall