AMSCO

Bureaucracy Structure

• Hierarchical Structure: Organized like a pyramid, authority flows from top to bottom.
• Specialization: Each part has specific tasks and responsibilities, leading to expertise.
• Formal Rules: Operates based on formal rules and procedures for consistency and standardization.

Tasks Performed by the Bureaucracy

• Implementation: Putting laws and policies into action.
• Administration: Managing government programs and services.
• Regulation: Creating and enforcing rules to govern various sectors.

From Patronage to Merit

• Patronage System: Jobs awarded based on political connections.
• Merit System: Hiring based on skills, knowledge, and abilities, often through competitive exams.

Discretionary and Rule-Making Authority

• Federal agencies have delegated discretionary authority from Congress to interpret and implement laws.
• Delegated Discretionary Authority: Power granted by Congress to federal agencies to interpret laws and create specific regulations.

Rule-Making Process

• Notice of Proposed Rulemaking: Agencies publish proposed rules in the Federal Register.
• Public Comment Period: The public provides feedback on the proposed rules.
• Final Rule: Agency publishes the final rule after considering public comments; it has the force of law.

Independent Regulatory Agencies

• Designed to be free from political influence, focusing on specific areas of regulation.
• Independent Regulatory Agencies: Agencies operating independently from the executive branch, responsible for regulating specific sectors.

Accountability for the Bureaucracy

• Kept accountable through oversight from Congress and the President.

Congressional Oversight

• Congress monitors the bureaucracy through hearings, investigations, and budget control.

Presidential Oversight

• The President can influence the bureaucracy through appointments, executive orders, and budget proposals.

Congressional Oversight

• Congress ensures the bureaucracy follows the law and acts in the public interest.
• Hearings and Investigations: Congressional committees examine agency actions and investigate potential problems.
• Budget Control: Congress controls funding, influencing agency activities.

The President and the Bureaucracy

• The President influences the bureaucracy through several tools:
• Appointments: Appointees shape agency priorities and direction.
• Executive Orders: Direct the bureaucracy to take certain actions.
• Budget Proposals: Prioritize certain agencies and programs, influencing funding levels.

Policy and the Branches of Government

• The bureaucracy operates within a system of competing interests among the three branches.

Competing Interests

• Congress, the President, and the federal courts have different goals, leading to conflicts over bureaucratic policy.

The Branches of Government

• Congress: Exercises oversight through hearings, investigations, and budget control.
• President: Influences the bureaucracy through appointments, executive orders, and budget proposals.
• Federal Courts: Ensures bureaucratic actions comply with the Constitution and the law.

AP® U.S. Government and Politics Chapter Overviews

Unit One: Foundations of American Democracy

• Focuses on the historical creation of the U.S. government, including the struggle between American colonists and the British government.
• Covers the U.S. government under the Articles of Confederation.
• Discusses the creation of the Constitution and the Bill of Rights.
• Explains the divisions of federalism.
• Includes the full text of the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence.

Unit Two: Interactions Among Branches of Government

• Covers the legislative, executive, and judicial branches defined in Articles I, II, and III of the Constitution.
• Explores the major national governing institutions, such as Congress, the presidency, the judiciary, and the bureaucracy of government agencies and departments.
• Examines the relationships and interactions between government sub-institutions, including the House and Senate, congressional committees, federal departments and agencies, and the lower U.S. courts.

Unit Three: Civil Liberties and Civil Rights

• Focuses on civil liberties, which are a person’s political freedoms, such as the right to free speech or fair trials.
• Explores the division of church and state, the limits of free speech, and the balance between individual liberty and societal order.
• Covers civil rights, which generally refer to a person’s basic rights to freedom and equal treatment under the law.
• Examines the struggle for equality under the law for certain groups, such as African Americans, other ethnic minorities, women, and gays and lesbians.
• Highlights the Supreme Court’s role and landmark decisions in understanding civil rights and liberties.

Unit Four: American Political Ideologies and Beliefs

• Examines why Americans hold different political ideologies and the factors that shape their beliefs.
• Discusses the influence of family, demographics, religion, school, geographic location, race, and other factors on voter behavior and the relationship between citizens and government.
• Covers the science of polling and differing ideologies on government’s role in the economy and social programs.

Unit Five: Political Participation

• Focuses on the linkage institutions—political parties, campaigns, elections, interest groups, and the mass media—that connect voters to the government.
• Examines how individual characteristics and government action influence voter turnout.
• Explains the structure, function, and impact of political parties and interest groups on policy.
• Analyzes presidential and congressional elections, campaigns, and campaign finance.
• Explores the role of the media and its relationship to government.

Content Updates

• Highlights updated content, including current and controversial topics, new voting trends, major news stories, and changes in modern communication.
• Legalization of marijuana and same-sex marriage
• The quest for marriage equality
• The role of social media in linking people with government and in political campaigns
• Federal government plans to regulate political advertising on social media platforms

Special Features

• Outlines special features included in the book to support in-depth learning.

Foundational Documents

• Familiarizes readers with the nine foundational documents selected by the College Board.
• Includes charters of freedom that created the national republic, four of the Federalist Papers, one Anti-Federalist essay, and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s "Letter from a Birmingham Jail."
• Provides selected passages or excerpts and questions for understanding.
• The Declaration of Independence and Constitution of the United States are reprinted in their entirety at the end of the book.

Must-Know Supreme Court Decisions

• Covers 15 landmark decisions in depth, ranging from Marbury v. Madison (1803) to McDonald v. Chicago (2010).
• Includes cases that cover a range of disputes, such as the limits of government action and the level of citizens’ rights.
• Provides an introduction and selected passages from the Court’s opinions, followed by questions for further analysis.

The Civic Engagement Project

• Encourages political science research and civic engagement.
• Requires students to complete a project that shows how they can affect, and how they are affected by, government and politics.
• Provides examples of suitable projects in "Think Tank: Making a Civic Connection."
• The project must be research-oriented or applied civics tied to the AP® U.S. Government and Politics Course CED.

Exam Information

• This section provides information about the AP® U.S. Government and Politics exam.
• The exam is given in early May and consists of 55 four-option multiple-choice questions and 4 free-response questions.
• The multiple-choice section is 80 minutes long, and the free-response section is 100 minutes long.
• Each section is worth half of the total test.
• Scores range from 1 through 5, with the College Board considering a score of 3 as "qualified."

Multiple-Choice Questions

• The 55 multiple-choice questions take different forms, have four options, and only one correct answer.
• Many questions require you to examine a graph, text passage, table, map, or political cartoon.
• Some parallel the classic multiple-choice questions that require deep conceptual understandings.
• Others are simple definitions to test your knowledge of terminology.
• Specific questions related to the content of the chapter are at the end of each chapter, while questions covering a broader range of topics are in the unit reviews and on the practice exam.

Quantitative Analysis

• These questions will have a quantitative presentation (chart, table, or graph) that measures some facet of government or politics, followed by two questions.
• This line graph presents data on the number of women in Congress from 1917-2015, distinguishing between the House and Senate.
• Understanding how to interpret such graphics is key to answering quantitative analysis questions.

Example Questions:

• Which of the following statements reflects the data in the chart?
  • (A) The number of women serving in Congress is on the decline.
  • (B) More women have served in the House than in the Senate.
  • (C) About half of the members of the past two Congresses have been women.
  • (D) There are more African Americans than women in Congress.
• Which of the following might be a potential consequence of the trend illustrated in the chart?
  • (A) More men will run for office in the upcoming election cycles.
  • (B) Congress will have a greater number of members as democracy broadens.
  • (C) Congress is more likely to address issues of health, education, and family.
  • (D) The Republican Party will gain seats in both house of Congress.

Answers and Explanations:

• The correct answer is B. The graph clearly shows that the line representing women in the House is consistently above the line for women in the Senate.
• The correct answer is C. As more women enter Congress, it is plausible that issues traditionally associated with women, such as health, education, and family, may receive greater attention.

The Rise of Women in Politics

• To answer the question about the result of the rise in women serving in the House and Senate, you need to think critically.
• Here's how to break it down:
  • Eliminate A: The graphic shows an increase in women, not a change or decrease.
  • Eliminate B: The number of members of Congress has been capped at 435 since 1929.
  • Eliminate D: There's no definitive data suggesting that women running for Congress are all Republicans.
• Therefore, the answer is C, which suggests women politicians traditionally initiate and support legislation addressing health, education, and family.

Text-Based Analysis

• This type of question requires you to read a short passage (100-200 words), often from sources like the Federalist Papers or a presidential speech, and analyze the author's perspective, assumptions, claims, and reasoning.
• Questions will test your ability to identify or describe the author’s perspective, assumptions, claims, and reasoning as well as consider the implications of the arguments and their effects on political principles, institutions, processes, and behaviors.

Example:

• Questions 3 and 4
• "The friends and adversaries of the plan of the convention, if they agree in nothing else, concur at least in the value they set upon the trial by jury . . . . the more the operation of the institution has fallen under my observation, [T]he more reason I have discovered for holding it in high estimation . . . as a defense against the oppressions of a hereditary monarch, . . . [and] a barrier to the tyranny of popular magistrates in a popular government. Discussions of this kind would be more curious than beneficial, as all are satisfied of the utility of the institution, and of its friendly aspect to liberty." - Alexander Hamilton, Federalist No. 83, 1788

Question 3:

• Which of the following statements is most consistent with the author’s argument in this passage?
  • (A) Judicial panels in cases on appeal will assure fairness in the adjudication of laws.
  • (B) A citizen-jury in our judicial branch will serve to prevent tyranny and safeguard liberty from other officials in government.
  • (C) The jury system is about the only proposal in the Constitution that is worthy because both sides agree on it.
  • (D) Juries are common in state courts and therefore unnecessary in federal courts.

Answer: B

• Eliminate A: The text doesn't mention appeals.
• Eliminate C: It's not implied that other proposals are unworthy.
• Eliminate D: Hamilton argues for the necessity of juries, not their redundancy.

Question 4:

• Which governmental concept is the author most likely trying to protect or guarantee?
  • (A) Sovereignty
  • (B) Representative lawmaking
  • (C) Equality
  • (D) Rights of the accused

Answer: D

• Hamilton suggests a jury is a protector of liberty, ensuring accused defendants are not wrongly prosecuted.

Visual Source Analysis

• These questions involve analyzing qualitative visual information like maps, political cartoons, or infographics, and focus on identifying the topic and perspective of the image, as well as explaining elements of the image in relation to political principles, institutions, processes, and behaviors.

Example:

• Questions 5 and 6

Question 5:

• Which of the following most accurately describes the message in the political cartoon?
  • (A) Fundraisers and reception dinners are ineffective at influencing candidates.
  • (B) Candidates are influenced by big campaign donors more than by those who cannot afford to donate.
  • (C) Political fundraisers for all offices should be open to the general public.
  • (D) Political fundraising takes too much time away from officials’ other duties.

Answer: B

• Eliminate A: The cartoon implies politicians listen only to big donors.
• Eliminate C: The cartoon implies that smaller donors wouldn't have more influence even if they attended.
• Eliminate D: The cartoon doesn't support the idea that fundraising takes too much time.

Question 6:

• Which of the following is a potential consequence of the message in the cartoon?
  • (A) Fundraisers will lose popularity.
  • (B) Third-party candidates will follow the fundraising conventions of the major party.
  • (C) Greater and greater amounts of money will be spent to influence candidates.
  • (D) Letter-writing campaigns by citizens will become more influential.

Answer: C

• Eliminate A: Nothing suggests fundraisers will become less popular.
• Eliminate B: The cartoon doesn't imply that third-party candidates will follow suit.
• Eliminate D: The cartoon implies that candidates are not influenced by people's "two cents' worth."

Individual Questions

• These are stand-alone multiple-choice questions that test your understanding of political concepts, institutions, groups, or policies.
• They might compare laws, documents, constitutional provisions, Supreme Court decisions, and political terms.

Example

Question 7

• Which of the following is an accurate comparison of the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution?

  • DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE CONSTITUTION
    • (A)Reflects Enlightenment thought Set up the framework for national government
    • (B) Contains seven articles Included a bill of rights as a priority
    • (C) Justifies the need for an executive Takes most powers from the state governments
    • (D)Outlines the nation’s first government Was ratified with unanimous votes within states

• Answer: A

• It is the only answer that makes an accurate statement about both the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution.

Essential Knowledge

• This category focuses on your acquisition of essential knowledge.
• These text-only, single questions require you to recall terms, concepts, functions, and processes.

Example

Question 8

• Which of the following statements about the Electoral College is accurate?

  • (A) The Electoral College votes for members of the House of Representatives.
  • (B) The Electoral College votes for state governors.
  • (C) The Electoral College votes for the president.
  • (D) The Electoral College votes for senators.

• Answer: C

Question 9

• Which of the following principles protects a citizen from imprisonment without fair procedures?

  • (A) Due process
  • (B) Separation of powers
  • (C) Representative government
  • (D) Checks and balances

• Answer: A

Question 10

• Searching a person’s car without a warrant or consent to search, a local police officer finds an illegal firearm. Which of the following concepts might prevent the firearm from being introduced as evidence at a trial?

  • (A) Exclusionary rule
  • (B) Probable cause
  • (C) Freedom of speech
  • (D) Right to remain silent

• Answer: A

• Exclusionary Rule: a legal principle in the United States that prevents evidence collected or analyzed in violation of the defendant's constitutional rights from being used in a court of law.

Free-Response Questions

• The free-response section has four question types. It is recommended to spend 20 minutes on the first three and 40 minutes on the fourth, as it is more complex.

Concept Application

• This question asks you to respond to a political scenario and explain how it relates to political principles, institutions, process, policy, or behavior, using substantive examples.

Example: Concept Application Question

• “Every day, more than 115 people in the United States die after overdosing on opioids. The misuse of and addiction to opioids—including prescription pain relievers, heroin, and synthetic opioids such as fentanyl —is a serious national crisis that affects public health as well as social and economic welfare. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that the total “economic burden” of prescription opioid misuse alone in the United States is $78.5$ billion a year, including the costs of healthcare, lost productivity, addiction treatment, and criminal justice involvement. ” - National Institute on Drug Abuse, March 2018
  • (A) Describe a power Congress could use to address the issues outlined in the scenario.
  • (B) In the context of the scenario, explain how the use of congressional power described in Part A can affect interaction with special interest groups.
  • (C) In the context of the scenario, explain how the media can affect the interaction between Congress and special interest groups.

Scoring

• Describe a political institution, behavior, or process connected with the scenario (0–1 point)
• Explain how the response in part (A) affects or is affected by a political process, government entity, or citizen behavior as related to the scenario (0–1 point)
• Explain how the scenario relates to a political institution, behavior, or process in the course (0–1 point)

Sample Answer

• Congress could pass legislation restricting opioid prescriptions and appropriate more money for opioid education and addiction treatment through its power of the purse. However, special interest groups representing pharmaceutical companies tend to donate to congressional campaigns and lobby in Congress. The media can act as a watchdog, investigating areas of concern and bringing these matters to the public's attention.

Quantitative Analysis

• (A) Identify the year in which Republicans/Lean Republican and Democrats/Lean Democrat were closest in their opinions on why people are poor.
• (B) Describe a trend in the graph.
• (C) Draw a conclusion about the possible causes of that trend.
• (D) Explain how the attitudes shown in the information graphic demonstrate differences between Republicans and Democrats in Congress on social policy.

Scoring

• Identify or describe the data in the quantitative visual (0–1 point)
• Describe a pattern, trend, or similarity/difference as prompted in the question (0–1 point)
• Draw a conclusion for that pattern, trend, or similarity/difference (0–1 point)
• Explain how specific data in the quantitative visual demonstrates a principle in the prompt (0–1 point)

Sample Answer

• The two groups were closest in their opinions in 2014, when 29 percent of Democrats believed people are poor because of a lack of effort, while 47 percent of Republicans held that view. The difference in opinions between the two groups widened after that. One trend is that attitudes about the reasons for poverty are moving in opposite directions for the two groups. One possible conclusion from this trend is that Americans are becoming more polarized, just as the Congress that represents them. Republicans are less supportive than Democrats of government-sponsored social programs, believing that people are poor because they do not exert enough effort. Democrats tend to support programs that help people overcome some of the limitations of their environments to try to rise out of poverty.

SCOTUS Comparison

• This question requires you to compare a non-required Supreme Court case to one of the 15 must-know cases.

Example: SCOTUS Comparison Question

• In 1942, the Supreme Court heard an appeal from Smith Betts, a poor person indicted on burglary in Maryland. He had no money to hire a lawyer, so he requested the state to provide one. A previous case had concluded that poor or indigent defendants had the right to an attorney, but only in death penalty cases. So, the judge refused. Betts pleaded not guilty, served as his own counsel, and was found guilty. He appealed the case claiming the lack of legal counsel resulted in his unfair trial and unfair conviction. The Supreme Court ruled that it did not, that the state could not prevent a defendant from using an attorney, but it was not obligated to provide one in non-capital cases.

• (A) Identify the constitutional clause that is common to both Betts v. Brady and Gideon v. Wainwright (1963).

• (B) Based on the constitutional clause identified in (A), explain why the Gideon v. Wainwright holding differed from the holding in Betts v. Brady.

• (C) Explain how the holding in either case impacted the process of selective incorporation.

Scoring

• Identify a similarity or difference between the two Supreme Court cases (0–1 point)
• Provide prompted factual information from the specified required Supreme Court case (0–1 point) and explain how or why that information from the specified required Supreme Court case is relevant to the non-required Supreme Court case described in the question (0–1 point)
• Describe or explain an interaction between the holding in the non-required Supreme Court case and a relevant political institution, behavior, or process (0– 1 point)

Sample Answer

• The constitutional clause common to both Betts v. Brady and Gideon v. Wainwright is the Sixth Amendment's guarantee of an accused defendant's right to counsel. The facts of both cases are similar. Both defendants stood trial for a non-capital offence, and both made the same argument that under the Sixth Amendment, they had the right to counsel in a state court as well and, as poor people, they should be provided counsel by the government. Time had passed and the makeup of the Supreme Court had changed. By the time Gideon’s case came before the Court, the chief justice was Earl Warren, whose Court was known for taking a stand for individual liberties. The holding in Betts v. Brady denied incorporation of the Sixth Amendment through the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The landmark case of Gideon v. Wainwright, however, reversed that holding and incorporated the Sixth Amendment so that poor or indigent defendants in state courts had the same right to an attorney as defendants in federal courts and, further, that states now had to provide an attorney to people who could not afford one.

Argument Essay

• This question requires developing an argument in the form of an essay and using evidence from one or more foundational documents to back up your claim.

Example: Argument Essay Question

• Develop an argument that explains whether or not breaking the law in the course of civil disobedience is acceptable. Use at least one piece of evidence from one of the following foundational documents:
  • First Amendment
  • Fourteenth Amendment
  • “Letter from a Birmingham Jail”

Scoring

• Articulate a defensible claim or thesis that responds to the question and establishes a line of reasoning (0–1 point)
• Support your claim or thesis with at least TWO pieces of accurate and relevant evidence. (0–3 points: 1 point for providing one piece of evidence relevant to the prompt; 2 points for using one piece of relevant evidence to support the claim; 3 points for using two pieces of relevant evidence to support the claim)
• Use reasoning to explain why the evidence supports the claim or thesis (0–1 point)
• Respond to an opposing or alternate perspective using refutation, concession, or rebuttal that is consistent with the argument (0–1 point)

Sample Answer

• As Americans, we value the rule of law. However, there are times when the importance of following the law may be outweighed by the importance of breaking it if breaking the law can help bring about a needed social change. The due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment has motivated many social changes, and if groups of people are denied the protection of due process, civil disobedience may be the best way to bring the matter to the attention of the American people, who can then pressure their representatives in government for meaningful change. The Fourteenth Amendment was developed to protect freed slaves, making equal treatment under the law a fundamental governing principle. The ideal of the Fourteenth Amendment, however, is not always easy to achieve. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. recognized this possibility in his "Letter from Birmingham Jail, " listing a long series of reasons African Americans have waited in the past based on promises from whites that never materialized. King knew that without a bold start, change would never come. He recognized that negotiations were, as the white clergy stated, the best way to work toward progress, but King knew that no negotiations would actually happen unless they were forced. Those who oppose civil disobedience argue that it will only increase hostilities and that progress comes with patience and good will. As Dr. King points out, blaming nonviolent protesters for any violence that breaks out in response to it is like blaming the robbed man for having the money that led to the robbery. And the South had decades of good will and patience from African Americans with no progress to show for it. Both Dr. King’s actions and his words in “Letter from a Birmingham Jail” show the value and necessity of civil disobedience.

Foundations of American Democracy

• After years of tax laws and rights violations imposed by the British, the American colonists issued the Declaration of Independence in 1776, initiating a war to establish their sovereignty.
• Initially governed by the Articles of Confederation, the United States adopted the Constitution in 1787, which defined the three branches of government, state relations, national and state powers, and amendment processes.
• The Constitution established a system of checks and balances to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful and introduced federalism, dividing power between national and state governments.

Founding Principles (Topics 1.1–1.3)

Topic 1.1: Ideals of Democracy

• Learning Objective: Explain how democratic ideals are reflected in the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution.

Foundational Document: Declaration of Independence

• The ideals of American democracy are rooted in the establishment of the United States after the Revolution.
• American settlers began defining democracy and self-governance well before the Revolution.
• The Pilgrims, for example, drafted the Mayflower Compact in 1620, which was grounded in Christian morals and the right to self-rule.
• Over a century later, the Declaration of Independence, applying Enlightenment principles, established a government where the people have protected rights and are the true source of governmental power.
• The Constitution codified these ideals into guidelines for a new nation.

Influence of Enlightenment Thought

• The leading revolutionaries were inspired by Enlightenment thinkers who championed natural rights and a social contract.
• Enlightenment Philosophers
  • Advocates for freedom from British rule drew on Enlightenment political theory.
  • Influential philosophers included:
    • Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679): In The Leviathan, Hobbes argued that life in a "state of nature" is anarchic and violent. He proposed that people give up some rights to an absolute sovereign to maintain peace.
    • John Locke (1632–1704): Locke argued in Second Treatise of Civil Government (1690) that natural law dictates that all individuals are born free and equal. He asserted that people have the right to rebel if the government does not respect their consent.
    • Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778): Rousseau argued in The Social Contract that people must abandon certain natural rights to secure protections for society. He envisioned popular sovereignty and a government of officials to carry out the laws.
    • Baron de Montesquieu (1689–1755): Montesquieu argued in The Spirit of the Laws (1748) for the separation of powers into executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
• Republicanism: An ideology where citizens elect leaders for a limited time to make and execute laws in the public interest.
• The American revolutionaries believed in "life, liberty, and property, " which could only be taken away by laws created with the consent of the governed.

Think as a Political Scientist: Describe Political Principles in Different Scenarios

• The United States has a limited government—one kept under control by law, checks and balances, and separation of powers.
• A limited government also respects people’s individual liberties and steps in only when necessary to resolve conflicts when individual liberties collide with some opposing force—another individual’s liberties or the public interest, for example.

Practice: Describe how the principle of limited government applies to each of the following scenarios.

• The state government establishes laws governing the legal age to drive.
• A case before the Supreme Court determines whether a person can be fired for being LGBTQ.
• The United States Department of Agriculture issues nutritional guidelines.

Declaring Independence

• American-British tensions rose in the 1770s due to taxation without consent.
• British suppression of self-rule, economic punishments, and unfair trials led to conflict.
• The Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia in 1776, where Richard Henry Lee proposed American independence.
• Thomas Jefferson and a committee drafted the Declaration of Independence, which was approved on July 4, 1776. It provided a moral and legal justification for the rebellion.

FOUNDATIONAL DOCUMENTS: DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

• The Declaration of Independence drew from Enlightenment philosophers like Locke, upholding popular sovereignty.

• It explained how the British Crown violated natural rights and self-rule, justifying separation from Britain and defining the relationship of the newly independent states.

• Key excerpts include:

  All men are created equal, endowed with unalienable Rights, including Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.

  Governments derive their powers from the consent of the governed.

  The People have the Right to alter or abolish a government that becomes destructive.

Political Science Disciplinary Practices: Analyze the Declaration of Independence as Argument

• The Declaration of Independence is a classic argument to persuade people to adopt a certain point of view or take a certain action.

• It asserts that governments derive their power from the consent of the governed, establishing the basis for popular sovereignty, and that people have the right to alter or abolish a government that is destructive to people’s rights.

  Apply: Explain how these claims relate to Enlightenment thought and republican ideals. Then read the full Declaration of Independence on pages 696–699, and answer the questions that follow it for an in-depth analysis of the argument in this founding document.

• Following the Revolutionary War, the colonies created a more official government under the Articles of Confederation.

• The image above depicts the signing of the Declaration of Independence. This was a pivotal moment where colonial representatives sought to establish independence from British rule and a new form of governance founded on Enlightenment ideals.

The U.S. Constitution: A Blueprint for Government

• The Confederation Congress called a convention in Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation.
• James Madison, known as the "Father of the Constitution, " was instrumental in creating the plan for the new government. Other key figures included George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and Benjamin Franklin.The Grand Committee, comprising delegates from each state, worked to resolve conflicting interests.

An Enlightened Constitution

• On September 17, 1787, the delegates created a blueprint for a unique political democracy. They established an elected president, a social contract, and the separation of powers.
• The U.S. Constitution establishes a system of checks and balances among branches of government and allocates power between federal and state governments. This system is based on the rule of law and the balance between majority rule and minority rights.
• The new government included three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial.

A Representative Republic

• The framers wanted citizen representation but on a national level.
• To promote popular sovereignty, they required popular elections for members of the House of Representatives every two years.
• State legislatures elected senators until 1913, and the Electoral College elects the president.
• The image shows the Declaration Committee, including Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and John Adams, meeting to plan the document.

REFLECT ON THE ESSENTIAL QUESTION

• Democratic Ideals Examples in the Founding Documents

Essential Question

• How are democratic ideals reflected in the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution