Page-by-Page Notes: Usage, Standard/Nonstandard English, Formal vs Informal; Subject-Verb and Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement (Pages 1–16)

Page 1

  • Usage: Differences in pronunciation, word choice, and grammar arise from the language communities we learn from.
  • Standard vs nonstandard English:
    • Standard English: conventions widely recognized as acceptable; used by announcers, writers, and professionals.
    • Nonstandard English: language of millions of Americans; not inherently inferior but not the standard taught in school.
  • Two kinds of standard English:
    • Formal English: used on serious occasions (inaugurals, court decisions, scholarly writing).
    • Informal English: everyday language with gradations; may include slang in casual contexts.
  • Why learn standard English: to avoid misjudgment or handicap in formal contexts; do not develop superior attitude toward nonstandard users.
  • Key idea: Different situations call for different kinds of language; standard language is a target for formal and broad public communication.

Page 2

  • Formal vs informal English (recap):
    • Formal English: longer, carefully structured sentences; formal vocabulary; limited slang and contractions; primarily written style.
    • Informal English: closer to spoken language; relaxed style, may include contractions and slang; varies by context.
  • Example contrasts:
    • Formal sample emphasizes precise structure and vocabulary (e.g.,
      "The greatest difficulty which stands in the way of a meeting of the minds of the scientist and the nonscientist is the difficulty of communication…" ).
    • Informal sample mimics conversational tone with humor and everyday imagery (e.g., product ads).
  • Practice focus: determine whether passages are standard/formal/informal or nonstandard; use this to guide practice in formal usage.

Page 3

  • Observations about formal writing vs. informal writing:
    • Formal writing sounds written and edited; longer, balanced sentences; formal vocabulary (e.g., alluded, communicable, naive).
    • Informal writing may imitate speech but is still carefully crafted; uses contractions, slang, everyday expressions.
  • Practical note: In exercises, you’ll choose formal standard English in cases where formal style is required, but you’re not required to be formal in all writing.
  • Exercise preview: Identify whether passages are standard or nonstandard and classify as formal or informal standard.

Page 4

Chapter 6: Correct Agreement

  • Definition: Agreement is matching forms between closely related words in a sentence (subject-verb, pronoun-antecedent).
  • If matched correctly, there is agreement; if not, there is an error.
  • 6a. Number (singular vs plural):
    • One refers to a single entity (singular). More than one refers to plural.
    • Examples: "One of the boys has not cast his vote" (singular); "Many of the boys have not cast their votes" (plural).
  • 6b. Verb agrees with its subject in number:
    • Singular subjects take singular verbs; plural subjects take plural verbs.
    • Note: nouns ending in s are often plural, but verbs ending in s are singular (e.g., "plays" vs. "plays a game").
    • Special note: were is normally plural except with singular you or certain constructions (e.g., "If I were queen…").

Page 5

  • 6c. A phrase following the subject does not affect the verb-number (the number of the subject remains unchanged).
    • Examples: "One of the girls is going."; "Both girls in the family are in the chorus."
    • Prepositional phrases beginning with expressions like with, along with, in addition to, as well as, etc., do not affect the verb.
  • 6d. Indefinite pronouns (singular): each, either, neither, one, everyone, everybody, no one, nobody, anyone, anybody, someone, somebody.
    • These are generally singular and require a singular verb, even when followed by a plural noun in a modifying phrase.
    • Nonstandard example: "One of the uniforms were green" (incorrect); Standard: "One of the uniforms was green."

Page 6

  • 6e. Indefinite pronouns (plural): several, few, both, many.
    • These take plural verbs.
  • 6f. Some, all, any, most, none may be singular or plural depending on what they refer to:
    • If the object of the prepositional phrase is singular, the verb is singular; if plural, the verb is plural.
    • Example: "Some of the cargo was lost" vs. "Some of the books were damaged."
  • 6g. Compound subjects: joined by and take a plural verb unless they name a single person or thing (Ham and eggs is my favorite dish).
  • 6h. Singular subjects joined by or/nor take a singular verb; or when the nearest subject determines the number (nearer rule).
  • 6i. When a singular and a plural subject are joined by or or nor, the verb agrees with the nearer subject.
  • 6j. Collective nouns may be singular or plural depending on whether the group is viewed as a unit or as individual members.

Page 7

  • 6k. A verb agrees with its subject, not with its predicate nominative (PN).
  • 6l. When the subject precedes the verb, ensure agreement with the subject (standard form: there is/there are considerations).
  • 6m. Words stating amount are usually singular when referring to a single amount; plural when referring to multiple items (e.g., "Two nickels are on the table" vs. "Two long weeks pass").
  • 6n. Every or many a before a noun or series is followed by a singular verb.
  • 6p. Title of a work (even if plural in form) takes a singular verb.
  • 6p. Don’t and doesn’t must agree with their subjects (don’t with I/you; doesn’t with he/she/it; contractions vary by subject).

Page 8

  • Exercises (summary): practice determining agreement in various sentences, including: selection between verbs, identifying correct number, and recognizing subject-verb agreement with compound subjects, collective nouns, and proximity rules.
  • Note: You’ll encounter multiple-choice and rewrite tasks to reinforce rules 6a–6p.

Page 9

  • 6g–6i and related sections extended into exercises:
    • Practice with compound subjects, or/nor vs. and, and the nearer-subject rule.
    • Exercises include sentences like: "Neither the American Legion nor the Kiwanis Club is planning" vs. plural forms when appropriate.
  • More on collective nouns and agreement in complex subjects.

Page 10

  • 6j Continued: Collective nouns and related rules; examples show singular vs plural agreement with different interpretations.
  • 6k–6p recap and further practice prompts (EXERCISE 9, 10, 11) to reinforce various scenarios (nearer-subject, either/or, neither/nor, etc.).
  • Additional topics addressed: predicate nominatives, and subject-verb harmony with introductory phrases and distractors.

Page 11

  • 6m–6p continued; focus on command-style exercises and mixed practice with several sentence configurations.
  • Exercise formats include marking correct/incorrect agreements, and checking agreement in more complex constructions.

Page 12

  • Review exercises (A): mixed prompts to determine if subject and verb agree; also checks agreement with gerunds, plurals, and compound subjects.
  • Highlights: ensure agreement with the main subject and not with intervening phrases or dependent nouns.

Page 13

  • 6q. Agreement of pronoun and antecedent:
    • Personal pronouns must agree with their antecedents in gender and number.
    • The antecedent is the noun to which the pronoun refers.
    • Singular pronouns (his, her, him, hers, etc.) typically refer to singular antecedents; plural pronouns (their, them, they) to plural antecedents.
  • Personal pronouns have three forms: nominative (subject), objective (object), and possessive (showing possession).
  • Some pronouns (each, either, neither, one, everyone, everybody, no one, nobody, anyone, anybody, someone, somebody) are singular and require singular pronouns (e.g., his/her) even when the antecedent might suggest a plural.

Page 14

  • Usage note on pronoun agreement when idea of the sentence is plural: prefer plural pronouns when referring to a total plurality (e.g., If all of the guests come, they will be accommodated).
  • 6q. Two or more singular antecedents joined by or/nor require a singular pronoun.
  • 6q. Two or more antecedents joined by and require a plural pronoun.
  • Relative pronouns (who, which, that) follow the number of their antecedent; examples illustrate agreement with collective vs. plural antecedents.
  • Exercise 14: pronoun-antecedent practice (fill in the correct pronoun).

Page 15

  • Review Exercises A–D: more practice on pronoun-antecedent agreement, including mixed cases (singular/plural antecedents, gender agreement, and reflexive pronouns).
  • Examples emphasize avoiding mismatches and ensuring pronouns reflect the true antecedent in number and gender.

Page 16

Chapter 7: Using Pronouns Correctly

  • Nominative and Objective Case:
    • Three forms of pronouns: nominative (I, you, he, she, it, we, they), objective (me, you, him, her, it, us, them), and possessive (my/mine, your/yours, his, her/hers, its, our/ours, their/theirs).
  • These cases determine how pronouns function in a sentence (subject/predicate nominative vs. object of a verb or preposition).
  • Personal pronouns follow person and case rules; the list of standard forms includes typical I/me, he/him, she/her, they/them, we/us, you, etc.
  • Note: The content indicates the ongoing study of pronoun forms and their correct usage in sentences, setting up more detailed rules for agreement with antecedents and predicates.

Title: Kinds of Usage and Correct Agreement — Page-by-Page Notes (Pages 1–16)